Jami' al-Sa'adat
(The Collector of
Felicities)
by
Muhammad Mahdi ibn abi Dharr al-Naraqi
Jami' al-Sa'adat
(The Collector of Felicities)
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Introduction
One of the most important of the Islamic sciences is ethics. All along the
brilliant history of Islam, great Islamic scholars have specialized in this
field and have produced important and valuable books dealing with this
subject. One of the best and the most comprehensive of these books is the
Jami` al-Sa'adat ("The Collector of Felicities"), written by the
great Islamic scholar, mystic, and moral philosopher, Muhammad Mahdi ibn Abi
Dharr al-Naraqi, who himself was a living embodiment of Islamic ethical and
moral virtues. The book was written in Arabic and published in three volumes.
Al-Naraqi was one of the most brilliant thinkers of the late 12th/18th and
early 13th/lath century. Besides Jami` al-Sa'adat, al-Naraqi was
also the author of a number of other important books.
In order to revive Islamic ethics in a world drowning in a whirlpool of
materialism and which seem to have all but forgotten the eternal spiritual
human values, we thought the effort worthwhile to condense this valuable work
into few short. articles for the benefit of those who may not have access to
the contents of the original Arabic text.
In the Name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful
Man has a soul and physical body, each of which is subject to its own
pleasures and diseases. What harms the body is sickness, and that which gives
it pleasure lies in its well-being, health and whatever is in harmony with its
nature. The science that deals with the health and the maladies of the body is
the science of medicine.
The diseases of the soul constitute evil habits and submission to lusts that
degrade man doom to the level of beasts. The pleasures of the 'soul are moral
and ethical virtues which elevate man and move him closer to perfection and
wisdom bringing him close to God. The study that deals with such matters is
the science of ethics ('ilm al-akhlaq).
Before we commence a discussion of the main topics of our subject, we must
prove that the soul of man is incorporeal, possesses an existence independent
of the body, and is immaterial. In order to prove this, a number of arguments
have been set forth amongst which we can mention the following:
1. One of the characteristics of bodies is that whenever new forms and shapes
are imposed upon them, they renounce and abandon their previous forms or
shapes. In the human soul, however, new forms, whether of the sensible or of
the intellectual nature, enter continuously without wiping out the previously
existing forms. In fact, the more impressions and intellectual forms enter the
mind, the stronger does the soul become.
2. When three elements of colour, smell, and taste, appear in an object, it is
transformed. The human soul however, perceives all of these conditions without
being materially affected by them.
3. The pleasures that man experiences from intellectual cognition can belong
only to the soul, since man's body plays no role in it.
4. Abstract forms and concepts which are perceived by the mind, are
undoubtedly non-material and indivisible. Accordingly, their vehicle, which is
the soul, must also be indivisible, and therefore immaterial.
5. The physical faculties of man receive their input through the senses, while
the human soul perceives certain things without the help of the senses. Among
the things that the human soul comprehends without relying on the senses, are
the law of contradiction, the idea that the whole is always greater than one
of its parts, and other such universal principles. The negation of the errors
made by the senses on the part of the soul, such as optical illusions, is done
with the aid of these abstract concepts, even though the raw material required
for making corrections is provided by the senses.
Now that the independent existence of the soul has been proved, let us see
what are the things responsible for its well-being and delight, and what are
the things that make it sick and unhappy. The health and perfection of the
soul lies in its grasp of the real nature of things , and this understanding
can liberate it from the narrow prison of lust and greed and all other fetters
which inhibit its evolution and edification towards that ultimate stage of
human perfection which lies in man's nearness to God. This is the goal of
`speculative wisdom' (al-hikmat al-nadariyyah). At the same time, the
human soul must purge itself of any evil habits and traits it may have, and
replace them with ethical and virtuous modes of thought and conduct. This is
the goal of `practical wisdom' (al-hikmat al-`amaliyyah). Speculative
and practical wisdom are related like matter and form; they cannot exist
without each other.
As a matter of principle, the term "philosophy" refers to `speculative wisdom'
and "ethics" refers to `.practical wisdom'. A man who has mastered both
speculative wisdom and practical wisdom is a microcosmic mirror of the larger
universe: the macrocosm.
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The
Meaning and Origin of Akhlaq
The word akhlaq is the plural for the word khulq which means
disposition. "Disposition" is that faculty (malakah) of the soul which
is the source of all those activities that man performs spontaneously without
thinking about them. Malakah is a property of the soul which comes into
existence through exercise and repetitive practice and is not easily
destroyed.
A particular disposition (malakah) may appear in human beings because
of one of the following reasons:
1. Natural and physical make up: It is observed that some people are patient
while others are touchy and nervous. Some are easily disturbed and saddened
while others show greater resistance and resilience.
2. Habit: Which is formed because of continual repetition of certain acts and
leads to the emergence of a certain disposition.
3. Practice and conscious effort: Which if continued long enough will
eventually lead to the formation of a disposition.
Even though the physical make-up of an individual produces certain
dispositions in him, it is by no means true that man has no choice in the
matter and is absolutely compelled to abide by the dictates of his physical
make-up. On the contrary, since man has the power to choose, he can overcome
the dictates of his physical nature through practice and effort, and can
acquire the disposition of his choice.
Of course, it should be admitted that those dispositions which are caused by
the mental faculties such as intelligence, memory, mental agility, and the
like, are not alterable. All other dispositions, however, may be changed
according to man's will. Man can control his lust, anger and other emotions
and desires, and channel them to edify himself and propel himself along the
path of perfection and wisdom.
When we speak of man's capacity to bring about changes in his dispositions, we
do not mean that man should destroy his instincts of reproduction or
self-preservation. Man could not exist without these instincts. What we mean
is that one should avoid going to either extremes in regard to them, and
maintain a condition of balance and moderation so that they may perform their
functions properly. Just as the seed of a date grows into a fruitful tree
through proper care, or a wild horse is trained to serve his master, or a dog
is trained to be the lifelong friend and a help to man, so also can man attain
perfection and wisdom through self-discipline and intelligent perseverance.
Human perfection has many levels. The greater the amount of self-discipline
and effort on the part of the individual, the higher the level of perfection
that he would attain. In other words, he stands between two extreme points,
the lowest of which is below the level of beasts and the highest of which
surpasses even the high station of angels. The human movement between these
two extremes is discussed by `ilm al-akhlaq or the science of ethics.
It is the goal of ethics to raise and guide man from the lowest animal state
to that exalted position superior to that of the angels.
The importance of ethics is thus revealed. And it is because of the reasons
mentioned above that ethics is considered to be the most exalted and valuable
of sciences; since the worth of any science is directly related to the worth
of the subject with which it is concerned, and since the subject of the
science of ethics is man and the means through which he can attain perfection.
Moreover, we know that man is the noblest of creatures, the ultimate purpose
of whose existence is to attain perfection; therefore, it follows that ethics
is the noblest of all sciences.
In fact, in the past, the philosophers did not consider any or the other
fields of learning to be truly independent sciences. They believed that
without the science of ethics and spiritual purification, mastery over any
other science is not only devoid of any value, but it would in fact lead to
the obstruction of insight and ultimate destruction of those who pursue it.
That is why it has been said that which means, `knowledge is the thickest of
veils', which prevents man from seeing the real nature of things.
Souls Purification and Adornment
Moral virtues in man gain him eternal happiness, while moral corruption leads
him to everlasting wretchedness. It is therefore necessary for man to purge
and purify himself of all evil traits of character and adorn his soul with all
forms of ethical and moral virtues. Moreover, without having cleansed oneself
of all evil habits, it would be impossible to nourish and develop moral
virtues in oneself. The human soul can be compared to a mirror in this regard.
If we wish to see something beautiful reflected in a mirror, we must first
cleanse the mirror, so that dust and dirt do not disfigure the reflection. Any
attempt to obey God's commands would be fruitful and successful only when one
has purified himself of evil habits and tendencies; otherwise, it would be
like putting on jewels on a dirty and unwashed body. When self-purification
has been completed and one is completely rid of all evil habits of thought,
speech and action, then the soul is ready to receive the unlimited grace of
God. Such reception is the ultimate reason for which man was created.
In truth, God's grace and the Divine mysteries are always accessible to man.
It is man that must purify his soul and develop within himself the necessary
receptivity to benefit from the infinite grace of his Creator.
There is a tradition of the Holy Prophet (S) which says:
The angels do not enter a house in which there is a dog.
How is it possible, then, for the rays of God's grace and Divine illumination
to enter a heart filled to the brim with immoral, selfish, and bestial
desires? The hadith of the Prophet (S):
(meaning, "My religion is based on cleanliness"), does not refer to outward
cleanliness alone; more than that it alludes to the inner purity of the soul.
In order to attain ultimate and final perfection, it is necessary to traverse
the path of struggle against selfish lusts and immoral tendencies which may
exist within the soul, and thus to prepare the soul to receive the grace of
God. If man sets foot on the path of self-purification, God shall come to his
aid and guide him along the path:
And [as for] those who struggle in Our cause, surely We guide them in Our
ways. (29:89)
Faculties of the Soul: Their Effects and Characteristics
At the time of its creation, the soul of man is like a clean tablet, devoid of
all faculties (traits), whether good or evil. As one progresses through life,
he develops faculties which are directly related to the way he lives, thinks,
and acts. The speech and deeds of man, when repeated over a long period of
time, produce a lasting effect in the soul which is known as a "faculty". This
faculty penetrates the soul and becomes the origin and cause of man's actions.
In other words, the human soul becomes used to these faculties, establishes a
union with it, and determines the human being's direction in accordance with
their dictates. If these faculties (malakat) are noble, they manifest
themselves as moral and wise speech and behaviour in man. If, on the contrary,
they are evil and base, they are manifested through immoral and perverse
behaviour.
These very faculties play the decisive role in determining the fate of the
individual in the eternal world of the Hereafter. The soul shall be
accompanied there by the same faculties that it was associated and united with
in this world. If these faculties are virtuous, the soul shall have eternal
bliss, and if they were wicked ones, it shall face eternal damnation.
This matter of malakat provides the answer to those who say how could
the Compassionate and Merciful God condemn an individual to eternal damnation
for a sin committed in a short span of time. The thing to keep in mind is that
when a sin committed repeatedly leads to the development of a faculty in man,
since this evil faculty is incorporated in the soul, the punishment and
torture which accompany it will also afflict the soul. The Quran says:
And every man-We have fastened to him his bird of omen upon his neck and We
shall bring forth for him, on the Day of Resurrection, a book he shall find
spread wide open. Read thy book! Thy soul suffices thee this day as a reckoner
against thee. ( 17:13-14)
And
And the book shall be set in place; and thou wilt see the sinners fearful
at what is in it, and saying, `Alas for us how is it with this Book, that it
leaves nothing behind, small or great, but it has numbered it?' And they shall
find all they wrought present, and thy Lord shall not wrong anyone.
(18:49)
And
The day every soul shall find what it has done of good brought forward, and
what it has done of evil; it will wish if there were only a far space between
it and its deeds. (3:29)
The Soul and Its Powers
The soul (nafs) is that heavenly essence which employs the body and
uses its various organs to attain its goals and purposes. The soul has also
other names as spirit (ruh), intelligence (`aql), and heart
(qalb) although these terms have other usages as well.
The most important faculties of the soul are:
1. The power of intelligence (al-quwwah al-aqliyyah)-angelic.
2. The power of anger (al-quwwah al-ghadabiyyah)-ferocious.
3. The power of desire (al-quwwah al-shahwiyyah)-animalistic.
4. The power of imagination (al-quwwah al-wahmiyyah)-demoniac.
The function and value of every one of these powers or forces of the soul is
commonly well understood. If man did not have the power of reason, it would
have been impossible for him to distinguish between good and evil, right and
wrong, true and false. If he did not possess the faculty of anger, he could
not defend himself against attack and aggression. If the force of sexual
attraction and desire did not exist in man, the continued existence of the
human species would be endangered. And finally, if man lacked the power of
imagination, he could not visualise universals or particulars, and he would be
unable to make any inferences based on them.
With this explanation, the characteristics mentioned for each of the four
human faculties are made clear and comprehensible. Reason is the guiding angel
of man. The power of anger and fierceness in man brings about ferocity and
violence in him. His power of desire and passion propels him towards
immorality and licentiousness. And the imaginative power in man provides the
preliminary material for the formation of demoniac schemes, plots and
machinations. Now, if the faculty of reason is put in control of the other
faculties, it keeps them in their rightful place and moderates their excesses;
they will work for the welfare of man and shall perform useful functions;
otherwise, nothing except evil and mischief will come of them.
The relationships of these four faculties of the human soul to one another are
described in the following allegorical manner. Imagine a traveller on
horseback accompanied by a dog and a man who is a spy for the bandits. The
mounted traveller represents reason. The mount represents desire and passion.
The dog represents the power of anger and fierceness. And the spy represents
the imaginative power. If the traveller just mentioned is successful in
controlling his mount, the dog, and the spy, and in maintaining his authority
over them, he shall arrive at his destination safely; otherwise, he will be
destroyed. The human soul is thus a stage or a battlefield on which there is a
continuous struggle between these four powers. What would be the dominant
characteristic and nature of an individual's soul is entirely dependent on the
outcome of this struggle. In other words, whichever of the four powers emerges
victorious, it shall determine the character and inclination of the soul. That
is why some souls are angelic, some are animalistic and bestials and still
others are demoniac.
In a hadith from Imam Ali (A), he is related as saying:
Surely God has characterized the angels by intellect without sexual desire and
anger, and the animals with anger and desire without reason. He exalted man by
bestowing upon him all of these qualities. Accordingly, if man's reason
dominates his desire and ferocity, he rises to a station above that of the
angels; because this station is attained by man in spite of the existence of
hurdles which do not vex the angels.
Pleasures and Pains
Pleasure is a condition experienced by the soul when it perceives something
harmonious with its own nature. Pain and suffering is occasioned when the soul
comes into contact with things which are in disharmony with its nature. Since
the powers of the soul are four in number, it follows that the pleasures and
pains of the soul must also be divided into four categories, each
corresponding to one of the four faculties.
Pleasure of the reasoning faculty lies in gaining knowledge about the real
nature of things, and its pain lies in ignorance and deprivation from such
knowledge.
Pleasure of the faculty of anger and fierceness lies in the feeling of being
victorious and in satisfaction at overcoming an enemy and taking one's
revenge. Its pain lies in the feeling of being overpowered and defeated.
Delight of the faculty of desire and passion is enjoyment of foods, drinks,
and sexual association while its pain lies in denial of such experiences.
Pleasure of the imaginative faculty lies in the visualization of particulars
which lead to the appearance of carnal desires and demonic tendencies, while
its pain lies in the insufficiency and inadequacy of these visions.
The strongest and the purest of pleasures is the pleasure experienced by the
faculty of reason. This is a form of pleasure which is both inherent and
natural to man. It is a pleasure which is constant, not subject to the
changing experiences in his daily life.
It is unlike the other pleasures, which belonging to the body and being
animalistic, are transitory in nature and without any lasting value. These
animal pleasures are in fact so low and trivial that man is ashamed of them
and tries to conceal them. If it were to be said of a man that he derives
great pleasure from eating, drinking, and engaging in sexual intercourse, he
shall be ashamed and upset about it. While, if such activities and pleasures
were becoming for man, not only would he not be ashamed of them, he would in
fact be glad if such a matter were published widely and be proud of it.
We can conclude, then, that the kind of pleasure that is becoming for man and
could be said to be really gratifying, and not be such in appearance alone, is
the kind 'of pleasure experienced by the soul's reasoning faculty. This sort
of pleasure has many degrees, the highest of which is experienced in nearness
to God. This most sublime of pleasures is attained through love and knowledge
of God, and acquired through abiding effort to be ever nearer to Him. When
one's whole effort is directed towards attaining this real and lasting
pleasure, sensual pleasures will be overshadowed; they shall take their proper
place in man's life, being pursued in moderation.
Goodness and Happiness
The ultimate aim of the purification of the soul and aquirement of a moral and
ethical character is to attain felicity and happiness. The most consummate
felicity and happiness for man is to be the embodiment and manifestation of
Divine attributes and characteristics. The soul of a truly happy man is
developed with the knowledge and the love of God; it is illuminated by the
effulgence emanating from the God head. When that happens, nothing but beauty
shall emanate from him; since beauty can emanate only from what is beautiful.
It should be kept in mind that true felicity can not be attained or retained
unless all the faculties and powers of the soul are purified and reformed. By
reforming some faculties of the soul, or all of them, for a short period of
time, happiness will not be attained. It is similar to physical health. A body
can be said to be healthy only when all its limbs and organs are healthy.
Therefore, the individual who seeks to attain ultimate and perfect happiness,
must free himself or herself from the clutches of demonic and animal forces
and tendencies and step on the ladder of ascension to the higher realms.
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Moral
Virtues and Vices
In our last discussion, we stated that the human soul possesses four distinct
powers. They are: Intellect, Anger, Passion, and the Power of Imagination
(al-quwwah al-wahmiyyah or al-`amilah)
[1].
The thing we should notice now is that the purification and right training
of every one of these powers will result in the emergence of a particular
faculty in the human being.
The purification and rightward training of the Power of Intellect will result
in the development of knowledge, and subsequently wisdom, in a human being.
The purification of the Power of Anger will result in the emergence of the
faculty of courage, and subsequently forebearance (hilm). The
purification of the Power of Passion and desire will result in the development
of the, faculty of chastity, and subsequently generosity. And the purification
of the Power of Imagination will cause the emergence of the faculty of justice
in a human being.
The moral virtues, therefore, are: wisdom, courage, chastity, and justice. The
opposite qualities of these are: ignorance
[2],
cowardice, concupiscence (gluttony and lust), injustice and tyranny.
Wisdom means possession of an understanding of the objects of the world which
concurs with the reality of things. The presence of courage and chastity means
that the powers of anger and desire are entirely at the command of the
intellect and completely free from the bondages of concupiscence and egoism.
As for justice, it refers to the condition when the Power of Imagination is
completely under the command of the Power of the Intellect. This implies the
regulation of all the powers of the soul by the Power of Intellect. In other
words, the presence of the faculty of justice in the soul necessitates the
presence of the other three faculties of wisdom, courage and chastity.
An important matter must be pointed out here. In the view of Islamic
ethicians, a person who has developed the four faculties within himself, is
not praiseworthy unless the possession of these virtues benefits other people
also. This is what reason tells us. That is, it tells us that purely internal
and private virtues do not have much value, and their possessor does not
deserve praise.
Moderation and Deviation
Every one of the four ethical virtues is to be practised to a certain degree
and within definite limits, transgression of which would transform a virtue
into a vice. If every virtue is thought of as the center of a circle, any
movement away from the center would be considered as a vice, and the farther
away it were to move from this point, the greater the vice. For every virtue,
therefore, there are innumerable vices; since there is only one center in a
circle, whereas points all around the center are infinite in number. In regard
to deviation, it does not make difference in which direction the deviation
occurs. Deviation from the center, in whatever direction, is a vice.
To find the real center, which entails absolute moderation, is thus difficult
to attain. To remain at this center and to preserve this balance is even more
difficult. The Prophet (S) said:
The Surat Hud has made an old man of me because of the verse,
`Remain as steadfast as you have been commanded'. (11:112)
As opposed to the real center, there is the approximate center, which is more
accessible. Individuals who purify and develop their souls usually reach this
relative center and acquire relative moderation. It is for this reason that
moral virtues differ with different individuals, circumstances, and times.
Relative moderation, like deviation, covers a wide area at the center of which
lies the point of absolute balance and moderation.
The Various Types of Vice:
We have already said that deviation from moderation and the mean causes vice.
This deviation towards either of the two extremes on each side of the mean has
infinite degrees. Here we will mention only the two extremes for every moral
virtue.
Deficiency
stupidity
cowardice
lethargy
submissiveness
Moderation
wisdom
courage
chastity
justice
Excess
slyness
foolhardiness
rapaciousness
tyranny
There are, therefore, eight kinds of vices, for every one of which we shall
give a brief description.
1. Stupidity is deficiency of wisdom; that is, not using the power of
the intellect to understand the nature of things.
2. Slyness is the excessive use of the intellect; that is, using the
power of the intellect in matters for which it is inappropriate, or using it
too much in matters for which it is appropriate.
3. Cowardice is deficiency of courage; that is, fear and irresolution
in cases where there is no cause for them.
4. Foolhardiness is the excess of courage; that is, reckless action in
cases where it is inappropriate.
5. Lethargy is the deficient state for which the point of moderation is
chastity; that is, failure to use things which the body needs.
6. Rapaciousness is the other extreme in opposition to lethargy; that
is, excess in sexual activity, eating and drinking, and other sensual
pleasures.
7. Submissiveness is the deficient state for which the point of
moderation is justice; that is, accepting oppression and tyranny.
8. Tyranny is the other extreme in opposition to submissiveness; that
is, oppressing either one's own self or others.
Every one of these eight vices possesses numerous branches and subdivisions,
which are connected with the direction and degree of deviation from moderation
represented by the four virtues. Since deviation can occur in a limitless
number of degrees, it is not possible to enumerate all of them. We shall,
however, mention some of the most well-known ones here, and later discuss the
ways in which they can be fought against.
Vices are divided according to the powers they are related to, namely,
Intellect, Anger and Passion.
1. The Power of the Intellect (al-quwwah al-`aqliyyah) can possess two
kinds of vices, which are stupidity and slyness, the further subdivisions of
which are as follows:
Simple ignorance: not knowing.
Compound ignorance: being ignorant, and being unaware of one's
ignorance.
Perplexity and doubt: the opposite of which are certainty and
conviction.
Carnal temptations: in opposition to which is contemplation of the
beauty of Divine creation.
Deceit and trickery to attain ends dictated by Passion and Anger.
Shirk (polytheism): the opposite of which is belief in the Unity and
Oneness of God.
2. The Power of Anger (al-quwwah al-ghadabiyyah) has two vices:
cowardice and foolhardiness, the subdivisions of which are:
Fear: a psychological condition which is caused by expecting occurrence
of a painful event, or loss of a favourable condition.
Lack of endurance and self-depreciation: This is one of the
consequences of weakness of the spirit and indicates an incapacity to face
hardships. The opposite of this characteristic is steadfastness, which means
the capacity to endure hardship and adversity.
Timidity: this is brought about by a lack of self-confidence and a weak
character, and indicates inability to struggle for the sake of attaining noble
and worthy goals. The opposite of this vice is the virtue of fortitude; that
is, courage and willingness to undertake great efforts to attain true felicity
and perfection.
Lack of sense of dignity: this is also brought about by a weakness of
character and indicates failure to take care and watch over matters which need
to be looked after and watched over.
Hastiness: this is another manifestation of a weak character and means
making decisions and embarking on actions without having given them proper
thought. The opposite extreme of this quality is lethargy, which is the
tendency to slackness and lack of alacrity in initiating action when required.
Suspicion about God, and the believers: this is another manifestation
of a weak and timid character. The opposite of this is trustfulness towards
God and the believers, which is a sign of courage and self confidence.
Anger: the opposite of which is patience and forbearance (hilm).
Revengefulness: the opposite of which is the quality of forgiveness.
Violence: this is caused by the Power of Anger and use of force to
achieve an end. Its opposite is conciliation and compassion.
Ill-temperedness: the opposite of which is good-temperedness.
Envy and malice: it also results from the Power of Anger.
Enmity and. hostility: this is a manifestation of the power of anver
and its opposite is friendliness; in other words, having the welfare of others
at heart.
Self-conceit and vanity: the opposite extreme of which is having an
inferiority complex.
Arrogance: the opposite of which is humility.
Boastfulness: which means talking about oneself with pride and
satisfaction. This condition is brought about by arrogance.
Rebelliousness: disobedience towards someone who deserves one's
Obedience. This condition is also caused by arrogance, and its opposite
is obedience to someone to whom it is necessary to be obedient.
Fanaticism: intense uncritical devotion to something.
Injustice and concealing of truth: the opposite of which is
justice and steadfastness in the defense of truth.
Brutality: lack of mercy and compassion when these qualities are called
for.
3. The vices of the Power of Passion and desire are lethargy and greed; and
their subdivisions are the following:
Coveting the world and riches: the opposite of which is zuhd
(self restraint).
Affluence and opulence: the opposite of which is poverty.
Avarice (tama): the opposite of which is indifference to possessions of
others.
Greed (hirs): the opposite of which is contentment with what one has.
Coveting of things forbidden by religion, and engaging in illegitimate
acts: the opposite of which is wara` (piety, caution), abstinence
from forbidden things and activities.
Treachery: the opposite of which is honesty.
All kinds of debauchery: such as adultery, sodomy, wine drinking, and
other forms of frivolous conduct.
Sinking into falsehood and believing in false things.
Indulging in frivolous and nonsensical talk and empty boasting as a
matter of habit.
Thus we come to the end of recounting the virtues and vices belonging singly
to each of the three powers. Now let us consider those virtues and vices which
belong simultaneously to two or three of the powers of the soul. These virtues
and vices are as follows:
Jealousy, that is wishing a decline in the fortunes of another person.
Insulting and degrading other people: the opposite of which is
honouring other people and respecting them.
Not being sympathetic or helpful to others.
Flattery.
Breaking one's ties with family and kin.
Being undutiful to parents and earning their disavowal.
Sticking one's nose into other people's affairs in order to discover their
faults.
Revealing other people's secrets: the opposite of which is guarding
other people's secrets and concealing them.
Causing friction and disharmony among people: the opposite of which is
to make peace and bring harmony among them.
Cursing.
Verbal argument and animosity.
Making fun of other people and ridiculing them.
Backbiting.
Lying.
Coveting fame and station.
Lover of praise and hatred of criticism: the opposite of which is
indifference to both.
Simulation: which is doing something in order to attract favourable
attention.
Hypocrisy: the opposite of which is being the same in one's exterior
appearance and inward self.
Self-deception: the opposite of which is insight, knowledge and
humility.
Rebelliousness: the opposite of which is obedience.
Impudence and shamelessness: the opposite of which is modesty and
shame.
Having elaborate and far-flung hopes and desires.
Persistence in sin: the opposite of which is repentence.
Self-neglect and alienation from one's self: the opposite of which is
self-attention and awareness of one's goal.
Apathy and indifference towards one's felicity and good.
Misplaced hatred: the opposite of which is appropriate friendship and
love.
Inconsistency and disloyalty: the opposite of which is loyalty.
Isolation and seclusion from people: the opposite of which is being
sociable and friendly.
Pique and peevishness: the opposite of which is calmness and
selfcomposure.
Sorrow and remorse: the opposite of which is cheerfulness and
joy.
Insufficient trust of and reliance on God.
Ingratitude and unthankfulness: the opposite of which is thankfulness
and gratitude.
Anxiety, alarm and impatience.
Impiety: that is disobedience and transgression of Divine commands, the
opposite of which is piety and obedient performance of the duties set by God,
and also performance of acts which are recommended by God.
The Importance of Justice
Now that we have recounted all the virtues and vices, it is necessary to gain
an understanding of the true significance of the quality of justice, since all
ethical virtues originate from this quality just as all vices emanate from
injustice, which is the quality opposed to it. Plato says:
When the faculty of justice develops in man, all the other faculties and
powers of the soul are illuminated by it, and these faculties and powers all
acquire light from each other. This is the condition in which the human soul
moves and acts in the best and the most meritorious manner possible, gaining
affinity and reapproachment with the Source of creation.
The quality of justice saves the human being from the danger of deviation
towards extremes, whether in personal or social matters, and enables him to
attain enduring felicity and bliss. Of course, it should be noted that this
quality can be successfully exercised only if the individual knows what the
Golden Mean is, and can distinguish it from excess when he confronts it. Such
discrimination is impossible to attain except through the holy teachings of
Islam, which contain elaborate instructions relating to all the things needed
by human beings to attain happiness and felicity in this world and the next.
Various Kinds of Justice
Justice is of three kinds:
1. The justice between the human being and God; that is, the penalties and
rewards which God bestows on man in relation to his acts and deeds. In other
words, for whatever acts he commits, whether good or evil, an appropriate
reward or punishment is given to him by God. If it were otherwise, it would
imply injustice and violation of rights on God's behalf and unfair treatment
of His creatures -characteristics which God does not have.
2. The justice amongst human beings; which means that everyone must honour
individual and social rights of others and act according to the sacred laws of
Islam. This is called social justice. In a prophetic tradition, social rights
are enumerated in the following manner:
Every believer has thirty obligations over his brother in faith, which he
could not be said to have met unless he either performs them or is excused by
his brother in faith from performing them. These obligations are: forgiving
his mistakes; being merciful and kind to him when he is in a strange land;
guarding his secrets; giving him his hand when he is about to fall; accepting
his apology; discouraging backbiting about him; persisting in giving him good
advice; treasuring his friendship; fulfilling his trust; visiting him when he
is ill; being with him at the time of his death; accepting his invitation and
his presents; returning his favours in the same manner; thanking him for his
favours; being grateful for his assistance; protecting his honour and
property; helping him meet his needs; making an effort to solve his problems;
saying to him: `God bless you', when he sneezes; guiding him to the thing he
has lost; answering his greetings; taking him at his word (not drawing a bad
interpretation of things he says); accepting his bestowals; confirming him if
he swears to something; being kind and friendly towards him, not unsympathetic
and hostile; helping him whether he is being unjust or is a victim of
injustice [when we speak of helping him when he is being unjust, we mean that
he must be kept from being unjust; when we speak of coming to his aid when he
is a victim of injustice, we mean that he should be assisted in securing his
rights] ; refraining from feeling bored or fed up of him; not forsaking him in
the midst of his troubles. Whatever good things he likes for himself he should
also like for his brother in faith, and whatever he dislikes for himself he
should also dislike for his brother.
3. Justice between the living and the dead. This is the kind of justice that
commands that the living should remember the dead with kindness, pay their
debts, act according to their wills, pray for them, give alms seeking their
forgiveness from God, and perform charitable acts in their memory.
Self-development
At the end of this section, the conclusion that we draw is that justice means
the complete mastery of the intellect overall other faculties and powers of
the human soul, so that all are employed towards the ultimate goal of human
perfection and the end of making oneself Godlike. In other words, the
intellect is the sovereign of the body; if justice prevails within it, it will
also prevail in the domain under its jurisdiction. Just as if the ruler of a
society is just, justice shall expand throughout that whole society, whereas
if the ruler is unjust, then there will be no justice in that country. This is
expressed in a narration:
Whenever a sovereign is just, he shares in the reward and merit of all the
good works done by his subjects; but if he is not just, he will be considered
an accomplice in all their sins and evil deeds.
Another conclusion that can be drawn is that one cannot reform others as long
as he has not reformed himself. That is, if an individual is unable to make
justice prevail within the domain of his own individual self, how can he put
it into effect amongst his partners, family members, fellow citizens, and
finally, the whole society? Therefore, self-development is necessarily prior
to all else, and this is impossible except through the science of ethics.
NOTES:
[1].
The Power of Imagination is also called the "practical intellect", which is
the counterpart of the "speculative intellect". The "speculative intellect"
comprehends the notions of virtue and vice and gives advice and guidance. The
"practical intellect" puts the directives of the "speculative intellect" into
effect and follows its orders. The directive of the "speculative intellect"
are always directed at the regulation of the powers of passion and anger in
the human being .
[2].
Ignorance or Jahl, are here used in a wider-than-ordinary sense.
"Jahl" here stands in opposition to "`aql" (reason or "hikmah"
(wisdom), not in opposition to "`ilm" (knowledge).
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Diseases
of the Soul and their Treatment
Introduction
In diagnosis of physical ailments there are certain rules and procedures to be
followed. First of all the disease must be identified. Secondly, the way of
treatment must be determined. Thirdly, treatment must begin with the use of
appropriate medications and avoidance of harmful things, and continue until
complete recovery.
It has already been explained that the diseases of the soul are caused when
its powers trespass the bounds of moderation, moving towards the extremes of
either deficiency or excess. The way in which these diseases must be treated
is the same as that used in treatment of physical illness, and must follow the
three stages mentioned above until full recovery is attained. We shall
continue our discussion, describe each disease and indicate its proper
treatment. The diseases to be studied shall be divided into the following four
categories:
1. Diseases of the Power of Intellect and their treatment.
2. Diseases of the Power of Anger and their treatment.
3. Diseases of the Power of Passion and their treatment.
4. Diseases relating to combinations of any two of these powers, or all three.
Before we begin our discussion of the diseases in these four categories, it
must be stated that every one of these powers can exist in either of the three
different states of moderation, deficiency, or excess.
In discussing every one of these powers, we shall first consider its deviation
towards excess, which is a kind of illness, and indicate its proper treatment.
This shall be followed by a discussion of its deviation towards the condition
of deficiency and the proper method of treating it. Next we shall consider its
state of moderation. We shall conclude our study of each power with an
examination of various kinds of moral maladies which may afflict these powers,
and their method of treatment.
1. Diseases of the Power of Intellect and Their Treatment
A- The Condition of Excess
Slyness: It is one of the vices of the Power of Intellect in its
condition of excess or extremity. When afflicted with this disease, the human
intellect is so immersed in meticulous examination and analysis that it loses
temperance. In other words, the individual's mental activity, instead of
bringing him closer to an understanding of reality, takes him farther and
farther away from it, and may even lead him to deny reality -like the
Sophists- and cause him to be bogged down in doubt and indecision in regard to
religious laws and their application.
The way that this fatal disease is to be treated is that the individual must
first become aware of its danger, meditate upon it, and then make an effort to
force his mind to keep within the limits of moderation. With common sense as
his guideline and the thinking and judgement of normal people as criterion, he
should judge his own thinking and judgements, being constantly on his guard
until he reaches the condition of moderation.
B. The Condition of Deficiency:
Simple Ignorance: This disease is caused by a deficiency of the Power
of Intellect in the individual, and is said to exist when the individual lacks
knowledge and learning, but is aware of his ignorance. This is in contrast to
`compound ignorance'-a state in which one not only does not realize his
ignorance but considers himself to be knowledgeable.
It is obvious that the treatment of `simple ignorance' is easier than that of
`compound ignorance'. In order to cure `simple ignorance' all that is
necessary is to examine the evil consequences of ignorance, and realize the
fact that man's distinction over the rest of animals lies in knowledge and
learning. In addition to this, he should note the importance of learning and
knowledge as attested by reason and also Revelation. The consequence of such
contemplation and reflection would be an automatic desire for learning. He
must pursue this desire with the greatest ardour, and not allow the smallest
speck of hesitation or doubt to enter into his mind.
C. The State of Moderation:
Knowledge and Wisdom: This condition is situated between the two
extremes of `slyness' and `simple ignorance'. Undoubtedly, knowledge and
wisdom are two of the sublimest qualities that man can possess, just as they
are the most important and noblest of Divine Attributes. In fact it is this
characteristic that brings man close to God. This is so because the more a
man's knowledge and learning is, the greater is his capacity for abstraction
(tajarrud); since it has been demonstrated in study of philosophy that
knowledge and abstraction are complementaries. Therefore, the greater the
degree of abstraction in the mind, the closer is man to the Divine Essence,
whose idea in the human mind is the highest of abstractions.
In praise of knowledge and wisdom, the Holy Quran says:
....And whoso is given wisdom, has been given much good ....(2:269)
And
....And those similitudes-We strike them for the people, but none
understands them save those who know. (29:43)
The Prophet (S) has been quoted as saying to Abu Dharr:
Sitting an hour in a learned gathering is better in the eyes of God than a
thousand nights in each of which a thousand prayers are performed, and better
than engaging in battle for the sake of God on thousand occasions, or better
than reciting the whole of the Quran twelve thousand times, or better than a
whole year of worship during which one fasts on all days and spends the nights
in prayer. If one leaves one's house with the intention of gaining knowledge,
for every step that he takes, God shall bestow upon him the reward reserved
for a prophet, and the reward accorded to a thousand martyrs of [the Battle
of] Badr. And for every word that he hears or writes, a city shall be set
aside for him in paradise ....
[1]
In Islam certain rules of etiquette are prescribed for both teachers and
students, which have been treated in detail in other books, of which the best
perhaps is the Adab al-muta'allimin by Zayn al-Din ibn `Ali al-`Amili
(1495-1559 A.D.). Here we mention some points about the proper conduct for the
student and the teacher:
1. The student must abstain from following his selfish and lustful
inclinations and from the company of worldly men; because, like a veil, they
prevent access to the Divine light.
2. His sole motivation for study must be to achieve God's good pleasure and to
attain felicity in the Hereafter; not for the sake of gaining worldly wealth,
fame, and honour.
3. The student must put into action whatever he learns and understands, so
that God may increase his knowledge. The Prophet (S) has been quoted as
saying:
One who acquires knowledge from the learned, and acts according to it shall be
saved, and one who acquires knowledge for the sake of the world shall receive
just that [and shall receive no reward in the Hereafter].
4. The pupil must honour his teacher, being humble and obedient towards him.
The proper conduct for the teacher consists of the following:
1. Teaching should be for the sake of God, and not for any worldly ends.
2. The teacher must encourage and guide his student, be kind to him, and speak
to him on the level of his understanding.
3. The teacher must transfer his knowledge only to those who deserve it; not
to those who do not deserve it and who may abuse it.
4. The teacher must speak only of what he knows, and abstain from topics of
which he is ignorant.
Here it is necessary to explain what we mean by knowledge and learning and the
kind of learning we are talking about. In other words, the question arises
whether honour and respect for knowledge and scholarship, which characterize
Islam, apply to all the sciences or to only some of them? The answer is that
fields of learning can be divided into two groups: firstly, the sciences which
have to do with this world such as medicine, geometry, music etc.; secondly,
the sciences which are concerned with man's spiritual development. It is this
second kind of learning which is highly honoured by the holy teachings of
Islam. However, the first group of sciences are also considered important, and
their pursuit is wajib kifa'i for all Muslims. That is, all Muslims are
obliged to pursue them to the degree necessary for meeting the needs of the
Muslim community.
Those sciences whose learning is necessary for spiritual development of man
are: knowledge of the Principles of Religion (usul al-Din or Islamic
doctrines), ethics (akhlaq)-which was formulated to guide man to those
things that bring about his salvation, and keep him from those things that
lead to perdition-and the science of jurisprudence (fiqh)-which
concerns itself with individual and social duties of human beings from the
point of view of Islamic Law.
Other Vices Related to the Power of Intellect
1. Compound Ignorance
Compound ignorance is, as explained before, the kind of ignorance in which one
does not know and is, moreover, unaware of the fact that he doesn't. This is a
fatal disease the cure of which is extremely difficult. This is because the
`compound ignorant' person does not see any shortcoming in himself, and so
lacks any motivation to do anything about it. Thus he remains ignorant to the
end of his life and its disastrous effects destroy him. In order to cure this
kind of ignorance, we must explore its roots. If the cause of an individual's
compound ignorance is a tendency for distorted thinking, the best treatment
for him is to learn some exact sciences such as geometry or arithmetic, in
which case, his mind is freed from muddleheadedness and mental inertia, and
led towards steadiness, clarity, and moderation. As a result of this, compound
ignorance is transformed into simple ignorance, and the afflicted individual
can then be stimulated into pursuit of knowledge. If the cause of the vice
lies in his method of reasoning, the individual should compare his reasoning
with that of men of research and clear thought, that he may discover his
mistake. If the cause of his ignorance is some other thing such as blind
prejudice and imitation, he should endeavour to remove them.
2. Perplexity and Doubt
Another disease which may afflict the Power of the Intellect is the vice of
doubt and perplexity, which makes man incapable of distinguishing right from
wrong. This disease is usually caused by appearance of numerous contradictory
pieces of evidence, which confuse him, and make him incapable of reaching a
definite conclusion.
In order to cure this disease, the individual must first consider the
axiomatic principles of logic, such as the law of contradiction, the principle
that the whole is always bigger than any one of its parts, the law of
identity, etc., and base all his subsequent reasoning on them, realizing that
truth is one and except the true one all other conclusions are false. In this
manner he can cut through the web of contradictory thoughts that bewilder him.
The opposite of ignorance, perplexity, and doubt is certainty, which is none
other than lasting, certain conviction; which being in accordance with
reality, cannot be shaken by any doubts however strong. This is specially
important in regard to theology and its various branches. In other words,
belief in the existence of God, His affirmative and negative Attributes,
prophethood, resurrection, and whatever relates to them, should be so strong
as not to be shaken by any doubts. The state of certainty is one of the
highest states possible for man, and is attained by very few human beings.
There is a tradition attributed to the Prophet that says:
Certainty is complete belief.
Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (A) is reported to have said:
God, the Supreme, in His supreme justice, has associated happiness and comfort
with certainty and contentment [that is, resignation to God's will], and
coupled sorrow and pain with doubt and resentment [with respect to Divine
will].
Signs of Men of Conviction
There are certain signs associated with the state of certainty against which
anyone can measure himself to determine his own degree of conviction. These
signs are:
1. Reliance on God in all one's affairs, and having mind only for His good
pleasure. To put it succinctly, it should be one's firm belief that:
There is no power or might [in the world] except that [it is derived] from
God, the Most High, and the Most Great.
2. Humility before God, both inwardly and outwardly, at all times and under
all circumstances, and obedience to His commands to the smallest detail.
3. Possession of extraordinary-almost miraculous-powers through being close to
God-a condition that comes about after one has realized one's insignificance
and weakness before His greatness and majesty.
Stages of Certainty
1. `Ilm al-Yaqin : Which is certain and permanent conviction. It is
like the conviction of a man who when he sees smoke believes with certainty
that there must be a fire too.
2. `Ayn al-yaqin: Which is beholding something with-either the outer or
the inner-eye. Using the above example, it is like the conviction of a man who
not only sees the smoke but fire itself.
3. Haqq al-yaqin: Which is the state of certainty acquired when a form
of spiritual and actual union exists between the knower and the known thing.
This would be the case, for example, if one should be himself in the midst of
fire mentioned in the above example. This is called "the union of the knower
and the known", and is discussed in its appropriate place. In order to attain
haqq al-yaqin one must fulfil certain necessary conditions. These are:
1. The individual soul must have the capacity to receive and understand these
truths; the soul of a child, for example, cannot understand the reality of
things.
2. The soul should not be one defiled by corruption and sin.
3. Complete attention must be concentrated on the object in question, and the
mind must be free of pollution of worldly and base interests.
4. One must be free of any kind of blind imitation and prejudice.
5. In order to attain the aim, relevant and necessary preliminaries must be
covered.
3. Shirk (Polytheism)
Shirk is another serious disease of the soul, and is a branch of
ignorance. It lies in believing that other forces besides God have a role in
directing the affairs of the world. If one worships these forces, it is called
shirk `ibadi (polytheism in worship), and if he obeys them, it would be
shirk ita`i (polytheism in obedience). The first kind is also named
shirk jali (manifest polytheism), and the second is also called
shirk khafi (hidden polytheism). Possibly the Quranic verse:
And most of them believe not in Allah except that they attribute partners
unto Him. (12:106)
is a reference to the second kind of shirk.
The opposite of shirk is tawhid (monotheism), which means that there is
no power in the universe except that of the Almighty God. Tawhid has
stages; they are:
1. Verbal admission or acceptance of tawhid; that is uttering the
(there is no god but God) without believing in it sentence with the heart.
2. Believing with the heart when the above statement of monotheism is made
with the tongue.
3. Realization of the unity of God through epiphany and numinous experience.
In other words, one discovers that the vast multiplicity of creatures derive
their existence from the One God, and recognizes that no power other than
God's operates in the universe.
4. One sees nothing in the world except the Divine Being and perceives all
creatures as emanations and reflections of that Being.
These stages of belief in tawhid guide us to recognize the cause of the
disease of shirk. The root cause of shirk is immersion in the
material world and forgetfulness in regard to God. In order to cure it, one
must meditate upon the creation of the heavens and the earth and myriads of
God's creatures. That may awaken within one the appreciation of the glory of
God. The deeper his meditation and contemplation on the beauty of the universe
and the mystery of its creation, the greater his faith in the existence and
unity of God shall become. The Quran says:
Such as remember Allah, standing, sitting, and reclining, and consider the
creation of the heavens and the earth, (and say): `Our Lord, Thou hast not
created this in vain. Glory be to Thee! sane us from the chastisement of the
Fire. (3:191)
Imam al-Rida (A) has been quoted as saying:
Worship does not lie in copious prayer and fasting, but in the amount of
contemplation in the works of God.
4. Satanic Temptations and Consciousness
Whatever enters the human consciousness is either through the agency of the
angels of mercy or the devil. If it is godly, it is called inspiration
(ilham), and if it is caused by the devil, it is called temptation
(waswasa). The human soul is a battlefield on which the army of angels
and the army of devils are locked in battle, and man has the choice to confirm
either of them. If the army of the devil is reinforced, he will become subject
to demonic temptations, and his outward actions will mirror his internal
condition. But if the Divine forces are strengthened, the individual becomes
the embodiment of Divine attributes and characteristics.
The Holy Quran relates how the Satan swore to misguide mankind and lead them
into sin:
He said: `Now because Thou has sent me astray , verily I shall lurk in
ambush for them in Thy Straight Path. Then I shall come upon them from before
them and from behind them and from their right and from their left ....
(7:16-17)
About the people who yield to the devil, the Holy Quran says:
....having hearts wherewith they understand not, and having eyes wherewith
they see not, and having ears wherewith they hear not. These are as the
cattle-nay, but they are worse. These are the neglectful. (7:179)
And about those who are not influenced by the devil, the Quran says:
As for those who believe in Allah, and hold fast unto Him, them He will
cause to enter into His mercy and grace, and will guide them unto Him by a
straight path. (4:175)
The way to fight demonic temptations by deliberating about the Hereafter. If
one contemplates the consequences of following the advice of the devil and the
future such obedience holds in store for him, he will find the right path and
be liberated from satanic temptations. When he finds the righteous path, God,
too, will come to his aid and guide him to ultimate happiness and felicity-as
has been clearly stated in the above-mentioned verse.
5. Trickery and Slyness
Slyness is another vice belonging to the Power of Intellect, and appears
through the agency of satanic and evil wishes of the Power of Passion and
Anger. Slyness and trickery is defined as conscious plotting against others
and drawing of elaborate and detailed plans to harm them. This vice is a fatal
one, because the individual afflicted by it is counted one amongst the party
of the devil. The Prophet (S) has said:
Whoever plots against a Muslim is not one of us.
The way to cure this fatal disease is that the afflicted should wake up to the
dangerous consequences of this vice, and realize that one who digs a pit for
others will himself fall into it, getting his punishment in this world itself.
He should also ask himself, why, instead of being kind and good to others, he
should plot against them.
2. Diseases of the Power of Anger and Their Treatment
As already said, the Power of Anger has three states: deficiency, moderation,
and excess; each of which will now be discussed in detail.
a. The Condition of Excess:
Foolhardiness: Foolhardiness, a disease of the Power of Anger, is reckless
entrance into dangerous and deadly situations despite the warnings of both
reason and religion.
The Holy Quran explicitly forbids it when it says:
....and cast not yourselves by your own hands into destruction
....(2:195)
The way to cure foolhardiness is to think carefully before embarking on any
particular course of action to see whether reason and religion approve of it
or not. If it meets their approval, one may act upon it, but he must abstain
from it if disapproved by any one of them. It may even be necessary for him to
abstain from actions in which the amount of danger is not great, so as to
curtail his propensity for foolhardiness. He must maintain this course until
he is certain that he has been completely cured of the vice, and until the
condition of moderation, namely courage, has been reached. Once he has reached
this state, he must try to preserve it.
b. The Condition of Deficiency:
Cowardice: Cowardice is timidity under circumstances which call for immediate
violent action. Cowardice, the opposite of angry and violent temper, results
in a feeling of inferiority, irresolution, melancholy, and lack of
self-confidence. In a tradition attributed to the Holy Prophet, it is stated:
O God, I seek Thy refuge from miserliness and cowardice.
The way to treat the disease of cowardice is to stimulate anger and violent
temper in oneself, and take a violent course of action when it is not too
dangerous to do so, until the soul arrives at the state of courage, which is
the moderate condition of the Power of Anger. He must then be on his guard not
to move out of the state of moderation towards the condition of excess.
c. The Condition of Moderation:
Courage: Courage is the manifestation of the Power of Anger in its state of
moderation, and is defined as subservience of the Power of Anger to the Power
of Intellect. This subservience is a most admirable trait, and is the cause of
numerous spiritual virtues. It is attained after successful struggle against
foolhardiness and cowardice as the result of constant perseverance and
exercise.
Other Vices of the Power of Anger
The Power of Anger may be afflicted with seventeen different vices, which we
shall now describe in brief.
1. Fear (khawf)
Fear is an uneasy expectation that something unpleasant might happen. For
example, one may be afraid of boarding a ship or sleeping all alone in a
house. It is clear that there is a difference between cowardice and fear.
Fear is of two kinds. Firstly, there is the fear of God and fear of sins and
Divine punishment. Secondly, there is the fear of things other than God. The
first kind of fear is praiseworthy, and leads man to perfection; whereas the
second kind of fear is an undesirable vice brought about by the disease of
cowardice.
Inappropriate fear is caused by the possibility that something unpleasant
might happen either to oneself or something or someone dear to one. For
example, one may be afraid of death, fatal danger, dead bodies, demons, etc.
The root cause of these fears is spiritual weakness, which can be removed by
self-examination. For example, if one realizes that he can do nothing to avert
a certain or probable danger of death and that fear is of no use .in averting
it, he will gradually lose his fear. If his fear of death is caused by an
inordinate love of the world and material things, he must reduce this
attachment.
Some fears have imaginary causes, such as the fear of darkness and dead
bodies. In such cases, one should put aside one's fancies and strengthen one's
soul.
The appropriate and praiseworthy kind of fear is that of the majesty and
greatness of God. This fear is also called khashyah or rahbah.
It is also the fear of sins one has committed and their punishment. The
greater such fear is, the greater the contribution it can make towards one's
spiritual development and perfection. Moreover, the greater and the deeper
one's understanding and knowledge of God is, the greater his fear of His power
shall be. The Holy Quran says:
....Even so only those of His servants fear God who have knowledge ....
(35:28)
Thus in accounts of the lives of saints, we find that occasionally they would
faint because of the intensity of their fear of God.
Intense fear of God is the best controlling force over human spirit; because
it weakens lustful and selfish desires, keeps the self from rebellion and sin,
and tames the human heart into submission to Divine commands. Furthermore,
fear of God annihilates all other fears, making one strong in confronting
injustice, tyranny, and oppression. Speaking of such people, the Holy Quran
says:
....theirs is safety; and they are rightly guided. (6:82)
And
....So fear not mankind, but fear Me ....(5:44)
And
....God is well pleased with them, and they are well pleased with Him; that
is for him who fears his Lord. (98:8)
And:
But as for him who feared the Station of his Lord and forbade his soul from
lust, surely Paradise shall be the refuge. (79:40-41)
And the Prophet (S) is reported to have said:
Whoever fears God, He will make all things fear him; whoever is not afraid of
God, He will cause him to be afraid of everything.
There are many Quranic verses as well as traditions about the merits of being
in fear of God; however, for the sake of brevity, we abstain from mentioning
all of them here.
It must be kept in mind that even in fearing God one must be careful to stay
within the bonds of moderation, so that it should not make one lose all hope
in the mercy of God; since losing one's hope in the mercy and compassion of
God is itself a great sin. The Quran says:
....And who despairs of the mercy of his Lord save those who are astray?
(15:56)
If the fear of God has been taken to such an extreme, then it must be
counterbalanced with raja' or hope in the mercy of God; for, with the
aid of the two wings of hope and fear an individual can ascend to the highest
levels of human perfection. The Quran refers to this point in these words:
Tell My servants I am the All-Forgiving, the All-Compassionate, and that My
chastisement is the painful chastisement. (15:49-50)
2. Self Depreciation or Inferiority Complex
This vice, caused by cowardice, is a condition that results when an individual
lacking courage to interfere positively in important matters fails to carry
out his social responsibilities such as persuading others to perform righteous
action and forbidding them from evil deeds.
Treatment of this disease is the same as that which was described in the case
of cowardice. The individual affected by this moral vice should know that a
true believer in God is never subjected to disgrace, and that God has bestowed
honour and dignity on the believer. The Holy Quran says:
....honour belongs to Allah and to His messenger and the believers ....
(63:8)
There is a tradition which says:
God has assigned to the believer the duty to [suffer] everything except
humiliation of his own self.
The characteristic opposite of self-depreciation is strength of character and
self-respect; that is, one should acquire a temperament which is unaffected by
anything pleasant or painful, either praise or blame. Imam al-Baqir (A) has
been quoted as saying:
A true believer is firmer than a mountain.
In another tradition, he has been quoted as saying:
God has bestowed on the believer three qualities: honour in this world and the
Hereafter, salvation in both the worlds, and fear of him in the hearts of the
oppressors.
3. Diffidence
It means a feeling of inferiority which results in not making an effort to
reach the heights of perfection open to the human being, and being content
with lower and rudimentary attainments. This is one of the consequences of
self-depreciation. Its opposite is the trait of confidence, which is
willingness to make effort in order to attain felicity in this world and the
next and to attain perfection. The virtue of confidence is brought about by
spiritual qualities of steadfastness, courage, and self-respect. Its treatment
is subsidiary to that of the disease of cowardice, which is the mother of all
vices in this class.
4. Lack of the Sense of Dignity
This vice consists of a lack of enough attention and failure to take care of
matters which need attention and care, such as faith, honour, children, and
property. This vice is caused by weakness of character and an inferiority
complex. Its opposite is the sense of honour and zeal for it, which are
praiseworthy virtues in man. In regard to religion, it implies effort to keep
it immune from deviations, zeal in its propagation, effort to comply with
religious laws oneself, and making others follow them too.
With regard to one's honour, it means safeguarding of one's self respect and
effort to preserve one's honour. With regard to one's children, it means that
one must attend to their right upbringing and sound ethical and cultural
development, so that they receive an early moral training, which becomes a
part of their personality. Islam gives great importance to parents' duties in
training and upbringing of their children. This is discussed in detail in
books on tradition.
In regard to one's property and possessions, it means that one should always
consider them as a part of God's blessing and as a trust given to him by God.
He must abstain from excessive consumption and waste, discharge his religious
duties, and not forget to help the needy.
5. Hastiness
It is a state which impels someone to abrupt decision and action without due
thought. This condition is also a consequence of weakness of character and an
inferiority complex. Its opposite is the virtue of thoughtfulness in action
and speech. The outcome of haste is detrimental, and accompanied by remorse
and repentance. In many cases, the damage caused by hasteful actions may be
irreversible.
In order to cure the vice of hastiness, one must understand its dire
consequences, and accustom oneself to dignified behaviour and thoughtfulness.
6. Ill-feeling Towards the Creator and His Creation
This is a condition which arises when an individual harbours distrust and
cynicism in regard to God, His creatures, and their works, interpreting
everything in a negative manner. It is also a consequence of cowardice and
product of an inferiority complex; because a weak charactered person acts
according to impressions that his imagination may produce. In opposition to
this trait is good will and trust with regard to God and men; which means
having a favourable attitude towards every thing; unless there is a clear
evidence to the contrary. The Quran says:
....and you thought evil thoughts, and you were a people worthless.
(48:12)
Imam Ali (A) says:
Think favourably of what your brother does, unless you find something that
proves the contrary; don't distrust what he says as long as it is possible for
you to consider it right and good.
The way to counteract this vice is to overlook whatever one may see or hear
about his brother in faith, and to preserve a favourable opinion of him in
one's heart, maintaining a respectful and loving attitude towards him.
7. Anger
Anger is one of the conditions of the soul, and possesses three states.
a. The state of excess, which is defined as what would put one outside the
bounds of religion and its laws.
b. The state of deficiency, which is defined as the state in which one fails
to take a violent action even though it is necessary for his self defense.
c. The state of moderation, in which anger is stimulated in appropriate and
permissible circumstances. Thus it is clear that the first and the second
states are amongst the vices of the soul, while the third is amongst ethical
virtues produced by courage.
Excessive anger is a fatal disease, which can be considered as a type of
temporary madness. When it subsides, it is immediately followed by remorse and
repentance, which represent healthy responses of a rational person.
Imam Ali (A) has said:
Anger is a stroke of madness, since the afflicted later feels remorse and
regrets. If someone does not feel any remorse after anger, it means that his
madness has become fixed.
Moreover, absolute absence of anger is also a vice, which drags man into
humiliation, subjugation and inability to defend his rights. In order to cure
excessive anger, one must first remove its causes. These may be pride,
selfishness, stubbornness, greed and other such vices. One must also consider
how unseemly excessive anger is, and how evil its consequences may be.
Secondly, he must examine the benefits of forbearance and self-restraint, and
associate with people who possess these qualities. He must also realize that
God's power is supreme, and everything is under His command, which would make
him realize his own weakness compared with the infinite power of God. Thirdly,
he should know that a person in a state of anger is not loved by God;
moreover, he may do something in anger, of which he will be ashamed later on.
The opposite of anger is mildness and forbearance-characteristics which count
amongst perfect qualities of the soul. They make a person forgiving and
merciful, although he may have complete power to take revenge. The Holy Quran
says:
Keep to forgiveness, and enjoin what is fair, and turn away from the
ignorant. (7:199)
And the Prophet (S) has said:
Forgiveness raises a man's station; forgive so that God may honour you.
8. Violence
Violence consists of use of furious and destructive force either in word or
action, and is one of the consequences of anger. Its opposite is the virtue of
gentleness, which is a product of patience. Addressing the Prophet (S), the
Holy Quran says in regard to this trait:
....for if thou hadst been stern and fierce of heart, they would have
dispersed from about thee ....(3:159)
And in a tradition attributed to the Prophet (S), it is said:
When God loves one of His servants, He blesses him with the trait of
friendliness, and whoever lacks this trait, lacks all other blessings.
Elsewhere, in a prophetic tradition, it is said:
Consideration and kindness for people is half of the faith.
9. Ill-temper
This vice is also caused by anger, and its opposite is good-temperedness. This
vice causes people to shun someone who possesses it, and brings him ruin in
this world and the next. It also destroys all of one's good works. The Prophet
(S) has been quoted as saying:
Ill-temper ruins good works, just as vinegar ruins honey.
Addressing the Prophet (S), the Quran says:
Surely thou art of a mighty morality. (68:4)
10. Rancour
Rancour is also caused by anger, and is a complex formed when anger is
suppressed. It has evil consequences such as jealousy and severance of
relations with someone against whom it is directed, and may result in physical
assault, passing of illegitimate remarks about him, spreading of lies,
backbiting, slander, divulging of his secrets, etc.
Sometimes rancour comes out into the open and manifests itself as outright
hostility, resulting in confrontation, fighting, cursing and name-calling-all
of which are fatal vices.
The way to cure this spiritual disease is that the afflicted individual must
first understand that the feeling of rancour hurts one who harbours it in his
heart more than the 'person against whom it is directed. Secondly, he must
decide to adopt an attitude of friendliness and helpfulness towards the
individual towards whom he feels rancorous, do good things for him even though
his emotions pull him in the opposite direction, and continue his affectionate
attitude towards him until he is rid of this disease.
11. Self-conceit and Vanity
This is another vice of the Power of Anger-a condition in which a man thinks
highly of himself on account of some advantage, real or imagined. On the other
hand, he fails to acknowledge the attributes of perfection of God, Who is the
source of all things. A great number of traditions point out the evilness of
this trait. One quotes the Prophet (S) as having said:
Even if you do not commit any sins, I fear that you may fall into something
which is worse: conceit! conceit!
The evil products of self-conceit and vanity are: arrogance; forgetfulness;
negligence of one's faults, and, therefore, failure to correct them; falling
of the worth of one's deeds in the eyes of men and God; absence of gratitude
for God's blessings, and thus risking their loss; failure to ask questions
about the things one is ignorant of, and, therefore, remaining in ignorance;
and finally, holding and proclaiming of incorrect and unfounded opinions.
In order to cure an individual of this disease, it is necessary for him to
turn his attention towards God and to know Him. When he realizes that only the
omnipotent Creator deserves worship and praise, and that he is nothing in
comparison with the majesty of God, and that there is absolutely nothing which
he may call his own, and that even beings far more superior to himself, such
as the prophets and angels, are nothing in comparison with God, he shall awake
to the fact that it is absurd to be conceited and vain, and that he must
consider himself what, in truth, he is: an insignificant creature of God.
When man contemplates his humble beginnings as a sperm-drop, his certain end
as a handful of dust, and the brief interval of his life as a wretched
creature prone to disease and dominated and driven by lust and instincts, he
will forget not only his vanity but his very self, and devote his entire being
to the worship of God. The Quran says:
Perish man! How unthankful he is! Of what did He create him? Of a sperm
drop. He created him, and proportioned him, then the way eased for him, then
makes him to die, and buries him; then, when He wills, He raises him.
(80:17-22)
And we have the following couplet from a Persian poet:
Don't boast of your riches, vigour and elegance,
Since one of them can be taken away in one night by thieves, and the other
can vanish at a single stroke of fever.
It must be kept in mind that vanity and self-conceit may also be caused when
one is favoured with such Divine blessings as knowledge, devotion, piety,
faith, courage, generosity, patience, an honourable ancestry, beauty, wealth,
strength, high position, intelligence, and so on. In order to avoid such an
outcome, one must always remember one's weaknesses and shortcomings; such
remembrance will help him to avert conceit.
The opposite of self-conceit and vanity is modesty, which is a most worthy
trait that brings about edification of the soul and man's perfection.
12. Arrogance
Arrogance is one of the consequences of vanity and self-conceit. When an
individual thinks too highly of himself, it is self-conceit; and when he
tends, moreover, to consider others as inferior to-himself, that is arrogance.
In contrast to these states, when one thinks of himself as small and
insignificant, that is called modesty; and when, in addition to this, he
considers others as superior to himself, that is called humility. In any case,
arrogance is one of the most fatal of moral vices. This is so because
arrogance is a thick veil which hides one's shortcomings from his own view,
and thus prevents him from removing them and attaining perfection. The Holy
Quran says:
....Thus does Allah seal every proud, arrogant heart. (40:35)
And
I shall turn away from My Revelations those who magnify themselves ....
(7:146)
And the Prophet (S) has said:
One who has even a particle of pride in his heart, shall not enter paradise.
Jesus (A) has said: "Just as a plant grows in soft ground, not where it is
rocky and hard, so also wisdom sprouts and grows in a heart which is humble
and soft, not in the hard hearts of the arrogant. Don't you see that the man
who keeps his head high bashes it against the roof, while one who holds his
head low has the roof as his friend and shelter?"
The cure of arrogance is the same as that prescribed for the vice of
self-conceit. Another remedy is to study the various Quranic verses and
traditions which deal with this vice and condemn it. One must also persevere
in the practice of humility towards God and men, associate with the poor and
the weak, abstain from ostentatious dressing, put on simple dress, be on equal
good terms with the poor and the rich alike, greet everyone regardless of his
age, and abstain from seeking a seat at a high place of honour at gatherings.
In short, he must resist all those selfish desires which contribute to make
him arrogant.
The opposite of arrogance is humility, and is one of the most praiseworthy of
moral virtues. The Holy Quran makes this statement about the virtue of
humility:
The (faithful) servants of the All-Merciful are they who walk upon the.
earth with humility, and when the ignorant address them, answer: Peace.
(2.5:63)
And
And lower thy wing (in kindness) unto those believers who follow thee.
(26:215)
It should be noted that humility is the middle ground between arrogance and
abjectness, and just as the former is a vice, so is the latter. The difference
between abjectness and humility is also clear. Thus while it is praiseworthy
for man to be humble, it is a vice to abase oneself.
13. Rebelliousness
A form of arrogance, it is also a fatal vice. It is defined as rebelling
against all those to whom it is necessary to be obedient, such as: prophets
and their vicegerents, righteous governments, teachers, parents, etc. In a
prophetic tradition, we read:
The sin quickest to be punished is that of rebelliousness.
The Prophet (S) has also said:
It is the right of God to humble anything that rebels against anything else.
Imam Ali (A) has said:
Rebelliousness drives the rebellious towards the Fire.
The way to cure the vice of rebelliousness is for the afflicted to meditate
upon his spiritual condition and refer to traditions in which rightful
obedience is enjoined, and at the same time strive to promote the spirit of
humility in himself.
14. Blindness to One's Faults
This is another result of vanity and self-conceit. Its opposite is awareness
of one's faults and shortcomings.
15. Fanaticism
Fanaticism is another moral vice which leads to degeneration of the afflicted
person's mind and understanding. Prejudice may exist in regard to one's
religious beliefs, nation, tribe, family, or other such things, and may be
manifested through one's speech or action. When fanaticism is in regard to
appropriate things, it is called enthusiasm and zeal, and is most
praiseworthy. If, on the other hand, it is in regard to inappropriate things,
it would be a vice.
There is a prophetic tradition that says:
Whoever has the least amount of fanaticism in his heart shall be raised by God
on the Day of Resurrection together with the pagan Arabs of pre-Islamic times.
The way to cure the vice of fanaticism is for the afflicted individual to
engage in introspection, and to realize the fact that fanaticism blocks one's
development and clouds his understanding of reality. Thus, if he seeks to know
the truth, he must set aside blind .fanaticism and prejudice, and examine
things in an objective and dispassionate manner.
16. Concealing Truth
The vice of misrepresentation and concealment of the truth is caused by
fanaticism, cowardice or fear. It may also be caused by the desire for wealth
or similar motives. In any case, this vice leads one to deviate from the
straight path, and brings about moral degeneration. The opposite is revealing
of the truth and steadfastness on the path of truth. There are numerous
traditions and Quranic verses which condemn concealing of truth and praise the
truthful. Some of the verses that most clearly and directly state this matter
are the following:
....Why do you confound the truth with falsehood and knowingly conceal the
truth? (3:71)
....And who is more unjust than he who hides a testimony which he hath
received from Allah? ....(2:140)
Those who hide the clear signs and the guidance that We have sent down,
after We had made it clear for mankind in the Book-they shall be cursed by God
and the cursers. (2:159)
To cure oneself of this disease, one should note the fact that this trait
earns Divine anger and may lead to kufr (infidelity). Moreover, he
should meditate on the benefits of giving expression to truth, and then compel
himself to follow it in action.
17. Callousness and Cruelty
When an individual is afflicted by the vice of callousness and cruelty, he is
not affected or saddened by the pains and sufferings of his fellow men. Its
opposite is the virtue of mercy and compassion. There are a number of Quranic
verses which reproach this vice, and praise compassion and love.
Treatment and cure of this disease is most difficult, because cruelty and
callousness sink into one's character, and become chronic and difficult to
cure. The best treatment for this disease is for the afflicted person to
avoid, first of all, cruel actions, which are outward manifestations of this
vice. Next, he should make an effort to share in the sufferings and
difficulties faced by others, and consider their problems to be his own.
Furthermore, he should try to react in an appropriate manner to such
situations, until, gradually, he begins to taste the flavour of compassion,
slowly making it permanent within himself.
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Vices of
the Power of Passion
The third of the four sections of the book deals with the diseases of the
Power of Passion and their treatment. These diseases are of ten kinds, and we
shall briefly discuss each of them.
1. Love of the World:
The best definition of this vice and the "world" condemned therein is to be
found in the following verse of the Holy Quran:
Decked out fair to mankind is the love of lusts-women, children, stored-up
heaps of gold and silver, horses of mark, cattle and tillage. That is the
enjoyment of the life of the world; but God-with Him is the fairest resort.
(3:14)
It must be kept in mind that all the things mentioned in this Quranic verse,
being Divine blessings, may not be condemned. Moreover, proper use of Divine
blessings is also not an unworthy thing to do. However, what is undesirable is
becoming attached to these things, and giving them a fundamental significance
in one's life-an emphasis which may exceed even that given to God. But if
these things do not take the place of God and were to be used as means of
attaining self-development and acquiring nearness to God, not only this is not
objectionable but highly desirable. Therefore, the condemnation and praise of
the world that we come across in the Quran or hadith relate to the kind
of use the world and its things are put to. If someone makes the world his
idol, and is engulfed in worldly hopes to such an extent that he forgets God
and the Hereafter, or sells the Hereafter for the world (2:86)-to use a
Quranic expression-then we can say that such a man has fallen victim to the
disease of the "love of the world." One Prophetic hadith delineates the
features of the lovers of the world in these words:
One who wakes up with his whole attention directed towards the world is cut
off from God, and God shall make four qualities to accompany him: endless
sorrow, never ending occupation, a neediness which is never relieved, and a
hope which is never achieved.
In order to cure this disease one must meditate on the fact that the good
things of the world are transitory, and what remains for man are spiritual
attainments, nearness to God, and the efforts made in preparation for the
Hereafter.
2. Love of Wealth and Riches:
This vice is a branch of the disease of the love of the world, and whatever
was said in praise and condemnation of the world could be said about riches.
Some Quranic verses and traditions have praised wealth and riches, while
others condemn it. There is, however, no contradiction between them; because
those verses and traditions that condemn it, are meant to condemn riches which
alienate man from God and the Hereafter; whereas those which praise wealth and
riches refer to the wealth that serves to uplift human character and brings
man closer to God. In a Quranic verse we read:
O believers, let not your wealth nor your children distract you from
remembrance of Allah. Those who do so, they are the losers. (63:9)
And in another verse, a nation is called to implore for God's forgiveness and
the following favours are promised:
...And will help you with wealth and sons, and will appoint for you
gardens,and will appoint for you rivers. (71:12)
And according to narrations, the Prophet (S) has been quoted as both praising
and condemning wealth.
The love of wealth and position nourish Hypocrisy (nifaq) just as
plants are nourished by water.
How fair is rightly acquired wealth in the possession of an upright man.
In any case, the proper and right kind of wealth is one which has been
acquired in a legitimate manner, and which is used in God's good pleasure-such
as for hajj, jihad, helping the needy, and all other kinds of charities
aimed at public welfare.
Zuhd (Abstinence): The opposite of cherishing the world is zuhd,
which is abstinence from worldly affairs, both inwardly and outwardly,
except for such things as are necessary for the purpose of acquiring the
bounties of the Hereafter, and for attaining nearness to God. The zahid
has been highly praised in Quranic verses and hadith; zuhd
is considered as one of the traits of Divine prophets and saints.
Zuhd has different degrees, which are:
1. Abstinence from sins.
2. Abstinence from things which are "mushtabah," that is things which
are not known with certainty to be forbidden, but which are suspect.
3. Abstinence from what is more than needed.
4. Abstinence from the pursuit of selfish desires.
5. Abstinence from everything except God;'i.e. confining one's attention to
the Creator, being content with the minimum needed to meet one's physical
needs, and giving away the rest in the way of God.
People practise zuhd for three different reasons:
1. In order to escape the Hellfire. This kind of zuhd is called
"zuhd al-Kha'ifin," or the "abstinence of the fearful."
2. In order to gain God's good pleasure and to attain the joys of paradise.
This kind of zuhd is called "zuhd al-rajin" or the "abstinence
of the hopeful."
3. For obtaining Divine communion. This is the highest aim and the most worthy
form of zuhd, practised neither out of fear of hell nor desire for the
pleasures of paradise.
3. Affluence and Opulence:
It means being in possession of life's necessities and it has many degrees, at
times leading, to great amount of wealth and hoarding of riches. The opposite
of it is poverty and neediness, which means lack of life's necessities.
Both affluence and poverty may either uplift man's character or destroy him.
If affluence is acquired through legitimate means, and the surplus wealth
above his needs is spent for the sake of God and in the service of His
creatures, it is considered as one of the virtues. If, however, it has been
obtained through illegitimate means, through injustice and exploitation, and
the affluent person is heedless of the needs of the deprived and the
destitute, it will lead to his certain destruction. The Quran says:
No indeed; surely man waxes insolent, if he considers himself affluent.
(96:6-7)
In the same way, poverty too, if accompanied by forbearance, resignation, and
contentment leads man to spiritual edification; otherwise, it will also lead
him to destruction. Thus, if we see that in Quranic verses and traditions
sometimes affluence and poverty are acclaimed and condemned at other times, it
is because if these states are accompanied by proper conditions they are
desirable, otherwise undesirable and abominable.
4. Greed (Hirs):
Greed is a condition which makes man dissatisfied with whatever he possesses
and makes him yearn for yet more. Greed is one of the worst of destructive
vices, and is not limited to worldly possession, but also includes indulgence
in food, sex and other things
The Prophet (S) said:
As man grows in age, two of his characteristics become young: greed, and far
fetched hopes.
Imam Abu Ja'far al-Baqir has said:
The greedy man in his love of the world is like the silk-worm: the more it
wraps itself in its cocoon the less chance it has of escaping from it, until
finally it dies of grief.
The opposite of greed is the virtue of contentment, which enables man to
control his desires and to be content with having the necessities of life. One
who has this virtue always lives honourably and respectably, as a free man; he
is immune from the vices of affluence in this world and the consequent
punishment in the Hereafter.
In order to free oneself from the vice of greed one must meditate on its evil
and harmful consequences and realize that greed is a characteristic of
animals, who recognize no restrictions for gratification of their sensual
desires, and use all means to attain it. It is thus necessary for the
individual to free himself from this vice and bring his rebellious self under
control.
5. Avarice (tama`)
Caused by the love of the world, avarice is another type of moral vice, and is
defined as having one's eye on the possessions of others. The opposite of this
vice is being independent of others and indifferent to what is in their hands.
There are numerous traditions in praise of being independent of others and in
condemnation of avarice. Here we shall quote two traditions in praise of being
self-sufficient, which also condemn avarice. Imam al-Baqir has said:
What an evil creature is he who is led by his avarice. What an evil creature
is he whose desire earns him ignominy.
Imam `Ali (A) says:
Whomever you are able to do without, you will be able to become his peer.
Whomever you are fond of, you will become his captive. Whomever you are
generous to, you will be able to become his master.
6. Miserliness (Bukhl)
Miserliness is defined as being parsimonious where one should be generous,
just as prodigality, which is its opposite, is defined as being lavish where
one should practise frugality. The middle path between these two extremes is
sakhd'; this is, being generous when generosity is called for. The
Quran, describing the characteristics of the believers, who are also called
`ibad al-Rahman"or "the slaves of the All-merciful," says:
...who, when they expend, are neither prodigal nor parsimonious, but
between that is a just stand. (25:67)
Whereas miserliness (bukhl) is caused by the love of the world,
generosity (sakha') is a consequence of zuhd. There are numerous
verses and traditions in praise and condemnation of each of these qualities,
which we shall leave unmentioned for brevity's sake. The highest degree of
generosity is sacrifice, i.e. readiness to give to others what one needs
oneself. Describing the believers the Quran says:
....and preferring others above themselves though poverty be their
lot... (59:9)
In order to cure oneself of the disease of miserliness, it is necessary to pay
attention to the Quranic verses and traditions in which this vice is
condemned, and to meditate about its harmful results. If that proves
ineffective, one must force oneself to be generous and liberal, even if such
generosity be completely artificial; and this must be continued until
generosity becomes one's second nature.
Generosity is necessary when carrying out such obligatory duties (wajibat)
as paying khums and zakat, providing for one's wife and
children, incurring expenditures for hajj (pilgrimage) and so on. It is
also necessary in carrying out the recommended duties (mustahabbat),
such as helping the poor, giving presents, giving parties in order to
create or solidify ties of friendship or kinship, giving loans, giving more
time to debtors in financial hardship, providing clothes and housing for the
needy, spending what is necessary to safeguard one's honour or to alleviate
injustice, and contributing to expenditures for such public facilities as
mosques, bridges, etc.
7. Illegitimate earning
This vice consists of amassing wealth in an illegitimate manner without caring
to avoid haram and forbidden means of earning. This vice is caused by
greed and the love of the world, and results in moral deterioration and the
loss of human dignity. Several verses of the Holy Quran and many traditions
severely warn about approaching haram means of income and remind of the
dire consequences of it.
It must be kept in mind that wealth is of three kinds: 1. That which is purely
halal (legitimately acquired). 2. That which is totally haram
(illegitimately earned). 3. That which is mixed up of both haram
and halal earnings.
What is halal is usable and what is either haram or of doubtful
origin (mushtabah) must be avoided. Haram things are of many
kinds, such as pork or dog's flesh, alcoholic drinks, all those things whose
consumption may harm the body, anything gained through force, injustice, or
theft, earnings made through unlawful practices, such as cheating in weight or
hours of work, hoarding, bribery, usury, and all other illegitimate means
which have been described in detail in the books on Islamic fiqh
(jurisprudence).
The opposite of earning through haram means is abstinence from all
forms of haram practices (wara` an al-haram). This virtue can
gradually become a habit in the individual through the exercise of self
restraint, so that he will ultimately be able to abstain from even those
things which are mushtabah (i.e. of doubtful legitimacy). A prophetic
tradition says:
Whoever lives on halal earnings for forty days, God shall enlighten his heart
and cause springs of wisdom to emanate from his heart flowing to his tongue.
8. Treachery (Khiyaniah)
Treachery is another type of the vices belonging to the Power of Passion.
Treachery may occur in regard to money or as a violation of trust. It may
occur in regard to honour, power, or position. The opposite of treachery is
trustworthiness ('amanah), which also applies to all things mentioned
about treachery; that is, one's property and possessions, which are Divine
trusts; one's family, one's position, the authority and power one wields. One
must always remember that all of the things mentioned are blessings of God,
accompanied by specific responsibilities, violation of which amounts to
treachery. The wise Luqman has been quoted as saying:
I did not attain my station of wisdom except through truthfulness and
fulfillment of trust.
9. Licentiousness and Profligacy
These include such vicious practices as adultery, fornication, sodomy,
intoxication, and all other forms of extravagance-all of which arise out of
the Power of Passion, and drag man down into a beastly mode of life. There are
numerous Quranic verses, traditions and narratives in condemnation of this
sort of behaviour, mentioning of which is unnecessary since they are widely
known.
10. Delving in Obscene and Haram Matters
This vice consists of discussing unlawful and haram actions, relishing
such talk, and exchanging obscene jokes and stories not befitting human
dignity and station. Since the haram and obscene is of many kinds,
delving in them can also be classified variously.
In order to be freed of this vice, one must control and limit his talk, and
speak only of such matters as would please God. The Holy Quran quotes the
inmates of hell as saying:
And we used to plunge [in vain talk] with the plungers. (74:45)
And in another verse, it warns against organizing parties for such purposes:
...do not sit with them [who disbelieve and mock] until they plunge in some
other talk ....(4:140)
One of the many forms this vice takes is delving in futile and frivolous
matters-discussions which are of no benefit whatsoever either in this world or
the next. Moreover, such talk involves waste of one's time and is an obstacle
to useful contemplation and thought. This is why the virtue of silence has
been upheld in opposition to this vice. And what is meant by `silence' here is
not that one should be permanently taciturn, but rather that one should
protect his tongue and ears from useless and nonsensical talk. In other words,
one should be careful in speech, saying only those things that are beneficial
to both our worldly existence and our Hereafter. The wise have said: "Two
things can destroy a man: too much wealth and garrulousness. "The Prophet (S)
said:
Blessed is he who is frugal in speech and generous with regard to his
possessions.
Joint Diseases of the Powers of Intellect, Anger, and Passion
The fourth section of the book deals with vices relating to combinations of
any two of the Powers, Intellect, Anger, and Passion, or all three of them,
and the methods of treating them. There are thirty-one of such vices. This
discussion, which deals with a large number of vices and virtues and which
contributes to the subject matter of most books on ethics, covers half of the
total length of the Jami` al-Sa`adat. In order to keep ourselves within
limits appropriate to this summary, we shall confine ourselves to a brief
discussion of the points raised in this section of the book.
1. Jealousy (Hasad)
Hasad consists of a desire to see someone's advantage or blessing taken
away from him. If one simply aspires to have the same advantage as someone
else, this would be ghibtah (envy), and if one has the desire to see
someone continue enjoying an advantage or a blessing, which he deserves, this
would be nasihah. That which is a vice amongst all these states, is
hasad, which makes man deserve chastisement both in this world and the
next. The jealous person knows no peace, and is always burning in the fire of
jealousy. Moreover his jealousy destroys the value of all of his good works,
as mentioned in a prophetic tradition:
Jealousy consumes virtues as fire consumes wood.
However, both ghibtah and nasihah are virtues, which must be
nourished by cleansing the soul from the vice of hasad. The fatal
disease of hasad may proceed either from the Power of Passion or the
Power of Anger, or both of them, depending on what motivates it. Thus, in
order to cure it, we must concentrate our attention on these two Powers, and
what we have already said about various diseases associated with these Powers
also applies to the disease of jealousy.
What can best help the individual to cure himself of this disease is to
contemplate the negative psychological and spiritual effects of jealousy,
which affect only the jealous person himself, not him who is the object of
jealousy. Moreover, the jealous individual should try to create within himself
the virtue of nasihah (wishing the welfare of others), which is the
opposite of jealousy. At the beginning, it may be necessary for him to impose
upon himself the attitude necessitated by this virtue, notwithstanding his
inner inclination to the contrary, until jealousy is overcome and nasthah
becomes an established trait of his character.
2. Harassing and Insulting Others
This kind of behaviour is usually caused by jealousy and enmity, although it
may also be rooted in greed (hasad), avarice (tama'), pride
(takabbur), etc. Thus, its source is either the Power of Anger or the
Power of Passion, or both. In any case, harassment and. insulting of other
Muslims is a major sin, and has been repeatedly condemned both in Quranic
verses and traditions:
And those who hurt believing men and believing women, without that they
have earned it, they bear the guilt of slander and manifest sin. (33:58)
And in a tradition attributed to the Prophet (S) we read:
Whoever hurts a believer, hurts me; whoever hurts me, hurts God: and whoever
hurts God is the accursed of Torah, the Gospel, the Psalms, and the Quran.
(from Jami' al-akhbar)
On the other hand, stopping someone from harassing and insulting others is a
worthy act praised in several traditions, of which the following prophetic
hadith is an example.
Whoever removes an annoying hurdle from the path of Muslims, God shall write
for him a virtue, whose reward is Paradise. (Ihya`ulum al-din, vol. II,
p. 172)
3. Frightening and Bothering Muslims
This kind of behaviour is a branch of the above-mentioned vice, and is caused
by either anger, ill-temperedness, or avarice. Its opposite is making others
happy and removing their cause of sorrow or anxiety. There are numerous
traditions in praise of this virtue, such as the following from the Prophet
(S):
Indeed the most beloved action near God, the Almighty, is to make the
believers happy.
4. Indifference to the Affairs of Muslims
Being indifferent to the affairs of Muslims is a moral vice caused by
lethargy, spiritual weakness, or miserliness. This vice is condemned in
numerous traditions, an example of which is the following wellknown statement
of the Prophet (S):
He who wakes up without any concern for the affairs of Muslims, is not a
Muslim; and he who hears the cry, `O Muslims!' without responding is not a
Muslim.
On the contrary, to meet the needs of the Muslims and to solve their problems
is considered as one of the noblest forms of worship. The Prophet is reported
to have said:
An hour covered on foot, at night or during day, in the effort to help one's
brother meet his need, is better than two months of i`tikaf (spiritual
retirement), regardless of whether or not one succeeds in one's effort.
5. Negligence in Carrying Out the Duty of "Al-amr bil ma'ruf wal nahy 'an
al-munhar"
Failure to carry out the duty of al- amr bil-ma`ruf wal-nahy `an il munkar
is an unforgivable sin caused either by moral weakness or lack of
attention to one's religious duties, and results in the spread of immorality,
corruption, injustice, and other forms of indecency throughout society.
"Commanding others to do their Divine duties and forbidding them from
committing illegitimate deeds" is an obligatory duty of every Muslim, and has
stages and conditions which have been explained in detail in books dealing
with Islamic fiqh.
Since what we are concerned with here are the individual's duties with regard
to his relationship with others, this brief mention of this duty is
sufficient.
6. Unsociableness
This vice is caused either by hostility, vengefulness, jealousy, or
miserliness, and, therefore, it belongs either to the Power of Passion, or the
Power of Anger. It has been condemned in numerous traditions.
The opposite of this vice is the virtue of sociability, hospitality and
friendliness, which is conductive to expansion of warm, brotherly relations
throughout the community. This virtue is highly recommended by Islam.
7. Breaking Ties with One's Family and Kin
This vice is a branch of unsociableness, but is far uglier and more harmful.
The opposite of this vice is the virtue of maintaining close cordial family
ties. A large number of traditions which can be found in the books on
hadith deal with this subject.
8. Being undutiful to Parents
This is the worst form that the vice of breaking off ties with one's family
can take, and according to severely worded traditions, it is the cause of
severe chastisement both in this world and the next. As opposed to this, kind
and loving behaviour towards one's family is considered to be one of the
highest of human virtues. It is reported that Imam al-Sadiq (A) was asked:
"What action has the greatest value before God?" And he reportedly answered:
"Prayer at the very beginning of its appointed time, kindness to one's
parents, and jihad in the way of God." This mention of kindness to
parents by the side of prayer and jihad, which are two of the most
important pillars of Islam, clearly demonstrates its importance.
Here it is also necessary to emphasize one's duties to neighbours and the
neighbours' rights, since it also belongs to the category of interpersonal
relations briefly discussed above, and there are many traditions condemning
harassment of one's neighbours and undesirable behaviour towards them.
9. Finding Faults with Others and Exposing Their Shortcomings or Sins
This vice is caused either by jealousy or hostility, and leads to the spread
of corruption, animosity, and destruction of good relations between the
people. The opposite of this vice is the virtue of covering up the defects and
sins of others. This virtue has immeasurable merit, and here we shall mention
one verse and a hadith in this regard, although there are a large
number of traditions dealing with this subject:
Those who love that indecency should be spread abroad among the believers
theirs will be a painful chastisement in the present world and the world to
come ....(24:19)
And the Prophet (S) has said:
>He who covers up [the faults of] a Muslim, God shall cover up his
faults in this world and the next.
10. Revealing Other People's Secrets
Disclosing other people's secrets leads to social discord and at times to
animosity. Therefore, it is considered a vice and has been condemned in a
large number of traditions. This vice may take various forms, one of which is
to recount to someone the derogatory remarks made about him by another
individual, thus creating discord and hostility between them. Another form is
to recount to someone in power and authority something that another may have
said or done against him, thus inciting him to the detriment of the victim. In
general, the vice of creating conflict and discord among people and stirring
up hostility between individuals can take various forms, and disclosing
people's secrets is one of its forms. The opposite of this vice is the virtue
of working to create good feeling, harmony, and love amongst people, which is
a quality of great value. In opposition to the vice of revealing other
people's secrets is the virtue of guarding their secrets and concealing them.
In any case, all the various forms of 'ifsad bayn al-nas (corrupting
mutual relations between people) are considered sins and condemned in many
Quranic verses and traditions.
11. Shamatah
This vice consists of attributing the misfortunes befalling someone to his
unsavoury acts, delighting in his misfortunes, and blaming him for his
misfortune. This vice is usually caused by jealousy or the Power of Passion.
Shamatah has been severely condemned in a large number of traditions,
and it has been said that, firstly, shamatah causes the culprit who
engages in it to fall victim to the same misfortunes he so delights in when
they befall others; secondly, his shamatah hurts the feelings of his
brother in faith, and is therefore a cause for Divine punishment; thirdly, the
fact that a misfortune has befallen someone does not mean that he has
committed an evil act; it may be a Divine test which may occur even in case of
those closest to God.
12. Taunting and Dispute (Ta'n wa Mujadalah)
Taunting (tan) means saying something sarcastic with a derogatory aim,
and disputatiousness mujadalah refers to engaging in futile disputes
without really wanting to discover the truth. These two traits are considered
moral vices, and lead to misunderstanding and bad feeling amongst friends. In
opposition to those vices is the virtue of upright speech that aims at
discovery of the truth through polite, sincere, and friendly discussion.
13. Making Fun of Other People and Ridiculing Them
This vice has the same harmful effects as taunting behaviour and disputatious
attitude.
14. Joking
Joking must also be avoided as a general rule, because it may cause bad
feeling and hostility in some people. However, it should be kept in mind that
what is bad is jesting in its extreme form; otherwise the kind of humour which
delights the soul and lightens the mind without resorting to lying and
slander, and without discomfiting others, is permissible.
15. Backbiting (Ghibah)
Backbiting consists of saying something about an individual that he would not
like. Backbiting is one of the major sins, about which much has been written,
and which has been condemned in a large number of traditions and Quranic
verses. A detailed discussion of its limits, characteristics and exceptions is
undertaken in the book. However, in order to remain within the limits set by
the brief nature of our summary, we abstain from this elaborate discussion.
What is worse than backbiting (ghibah) is slander (buhtan), that
is, false accusation. The opposite of backbiting is praising others, and the
opposite of slander-which consists of falsehoods-honest mentioning of the
actual good qualities of an individual.
16. Lying
Lying is a shameful vice and a great sin, which leads to personal and social
corruption. There are a large number of traditions and Quranic verses
regarding the evil of lying, and many works have been written to condemn it.
The opposite of this vice is the virtue of truthfulness (sidq).
Truthfulness is one of the most praiseworthy qualities of a human being and
sidq is a word that recurs a great number of times in the Holy Quran.
17. Simulation (riya')
Simulation means doing a good deed for the sake of ostentation rather than for
the sake of God. It is a great sin, and causes spiritual deterioration and
death. And the Quran says:
So woe to those that pray and are heedless of their prayers, to those who
would be seen [at worship], yet refuse charity. (107:4-7)
In another verse we read:
...showing off to the people and not remembering God save a little.
(4:142)
Here is a prophetic tradition about the vice of riya':
[The Prophet (S) said:] "The main thing that I fear concerning you is `minor
idolatry' (shirk)". They asked "What is `minor idolatry'?" He answered:
"Simulation! On the Day of Judgement, when Allah the Almighty is examining the
past deeds of His creatures, He shall say to the simulators, "Go to those to
whom you showed off during your lives in the world and ask them for your
reward."
There are different kinds of riya': riya' in worship, whatever form it
may take, is always reprobate; riya' in other matters, which is
sometimes reprehensible, but at other times may be permissible (mubah)
and even desirable. For example, if one is openly generous with the
intention of encouraging others to be generous also, his action is not only
without reproach, but in fact is highly commendable. The significance of
simulation in each case depends on the intentions of the individual involved.
The opposite of riya' is ikhlas (sincerity), which means doing
everything for the sake of God alone, without expecting any reward from anyone
for what he does. The station of ikhlas is one of the highest that a
believer may attain, but may be reached through persistent exercise and
perseverance.
18. Hypocrisy (Nifaq)
Hypocrisy, that is feigning to be what one is not or to believe what one does
not, in religion or in social relations, is one of the most destructive vices.
Throughout the Holy Quran, hypocrites are condemned in the strongest of terms.
Also, there are many traditions in condemnation of this vice.
The opposite of hypocrisy is being the same in one's external appearance and
inward self, or preferably, being better inwardly than what one appears to be.
This latter trait is a characteristic of the mu'minun (true believers)
and those who are close to God (awliya' Allah).
19. Pride (Ghurur)
Pride consists of conceit based on selfish desires and fancies, and it may be
in regard to the affairs of this world or that of the next. One may become
proud of one's worship, or one's sons, wealth, position and power, or
something else. All of these may lead to pride, and consequently to the
spiritual and moral fall of man. And thus we see
that the Holy Quran warns man against all forms of pride, which is a kind of
illusion and self-deception:
...Let not the life of the world beguile you, nor let the Deceiver (Devil)
deceive you in regard to God. (31:33)
People from all walks of life may fall prey to the vice of pride. They may be
believers or infidels, scholars, pious people, mystics, and so on, and each of
them may be proud of some particular thing. Thus we see that pride can take
numerous forms. Pride may be caused by the Power of Intellect, the Power of
Passion, the Power of Anger, or all three of them together.
The opposite of pride-which as mentioned is a kind of self deception-is
knowledge, wisdom, awareness, and zuhd; because the more a man is aware
of reality the less he is likely to fall prey to pride. The following
tradition of Imam al-Sadiq (A) suggests the true remedy to the vice of pride:
Know that you shall not be freed from the darkness of pride and desire unless
you truly return to God in humility and penitence, and become aware of your
faults and shortcomings-that is, those things which do not agree with reason
and intelligence, and are not upheld by religion, Divine Law, and the
tradition of the leaders of guidance. And if you are satisfied with the
condition you are in, be certain that no one is more callous and wicked in
regard to your own acts and none more indifferent to the wastage of your years
of life than yourself, and this attitude will ultimately leave you with the
inheritance of bitter despair on the Day of Resurrection (Misbah
al-Shari`ah, chapter 36.)
20. Having Elaborate and Far-Flung Hopes and Desires
This vice is caused by the Power of Intellect and Passion, and is rooted in
ignorance and the love of the world. It harms man by keeping him occupied with
worldly matters and by retarding his spiritual development.
In order to cure oneself of this disease, one must constantly think about
death and the Hereafter, with the knowledge that the world and worldly
existence are transitory, and whatever one may acquire, one day one is forced
to leave it behind and embrace death. He must keep alive this realization in
his mind that the only useful things that he can carry across the abyss of
death are his good works.
21. Rebelliousness (`Isyan)
Rebelliousness here means disobeying God's commands. This vice belongs to the
Power of Anger and Passion; its opposite is obedience and God-fearing
(taqwa).
22. Shamelessness
Belonging to the Powers of Anger and Passion, this vice consists of impudence
and absence of shame in doing prohibited acts. Its opposite is modesty and
shame (haya') which is a part of faith. Imam al-Sadiq (A) has said:
Modesty belongs to faith and faith is in paradise.
23. Persistence in Sin (al-'israr `ala al-ma'siyah)
This is an evil state, and its opposite is repentance (tawbah).
Repeating sins makes them seem ordinary, insignificant, everyday affairs.
Therefore, before this happens to one, it is necessary for him to contemplate
the vicious outcome of committing sins and examine their harms both in this
world and the next. Such contemplation leads him to repent his sins and become
genuinely sorry and ashamed that he ever committed them. On the other hand,
tawbah or repentance is return from the state of sinfulness. An even
higher state of repentance is 'inabah, which is turning away from and
giving up even permissible (mubah) things. In this higher state of
repentance one seeks, in speech and act, only to please God, and remember God
continuously. A necessary adjunct of tawbah is muhasabah and
muraqabah, which means that a sincerely repentant person constantly
takes an account of his deeds and gives thought to the moral quality of his
actions. There is a tradition that says:
Take account of yourselves before you are taken to account.
24. Neglect (Ghaflah)
Ghaflah means indifference and lack of attention; its opposite is
attention and resoluteness. If what is neglected is our ultimate felicity and
well-being, it is a vice. However, neglect and indifference to baseness and
wickedness is a virtue. That is, care and attention given to evil and base
things is a vice, while care and attention given to things having to do with
our well-being and felicity is a virtue. Both negligence and resoluteness, or
care, are derived either from the Power of Passion or the Power of Anger. For
example, if one is intent on getting married, the motivation for such a
resolution is rooted in the Power of Passion, and is a virtue. If one resolves
on defending oneself against some enemy, that resolution is rooted in the
Power of Anger and is also a virtue.
This was a general description of negligence and care or resoluteness.
However, as a term used in Quranic verses and traditions, negligence usually
refers to indifference to the real aims of human existence and the agents of
man's well-being and happiness in this world and the next; and its opposite,
resoluteness, is also interpreted as clarity of will and purpose in the same
sense. In this sense, therefore, negligence is always bad and resoluteness is
always good. The Quran makes the following remark about the neglectful:
We have prepared for hell many jinn and men; they have hearts wherewith
they understand not, they have eyes wherewith they see not they have ears
wherewith they hear not. They are like cattle; nay, rather they are further
astray. Those-they are the neglectful. (7:179)
25. Aversion (Karahah)
`Aversion' refers to a state of abhorrence for all things entailing hardship
and labour. Its extreme form is maqt or `hatred.' The opposite of
karahah is hubb or inclination. Hubb consits of the
soul's liking for pleasant and beneficial things. The extreme form of
hubb is ishq (love).
Aversion can be either good or bad; for example, if one is averse to jihad
for the sake of God or to self-defense, this is highly undesirable and
reprehensible. If, however, one has an aversion to ugly deeds and sins, it is
good and highly desirable. The same rule applies to hubb, in that if
one likes good and beneficial things, it is a desirable trait; but not so if
one likes evil things.
The point worthy of notice is that hubb must essentially be directed
only towards God and whatever is associated with the Divine. This is the
highest form of hubb. It should be kept in mind that the Real Beloved
is God, and it is only when man loses his Real Beloved that he mistakenly
adopts other objects for his love, such as wife, children, wealth, status, or
any other worldly thing. If man were to find his True Beloved again, he would
also achieve deliverance from his endless, aimless wanderings. In order to
find the True Beloved, first we must know all the various forms of hubb.
Basically hubb may be directed towards nine different things:
1. The human being's hubb for itself; which is one of the strongest
forms of hubb.
2. The human being's hubb for things outside itself for the purpose of
deriving physical pleasure from them, such as various kinds of foods, clothes,
and other things which serve to satisfy physical needs and desires.
3. Man's hubb for another human being on account of the kindness or
service that the other has rendered him.
4. Man's hubb for something on account of that thing's inherent
goodness, such as beauty and righteousness.
5. Man's hubb for another individual without his being able to find any
particular reason for it; not because that individual has beauty, wealth or
power or something of the kind, but simply because of the existence of some
invisible spiritual link between them.
6. Man's hubb for an individual who has come from a far-off place, or
whom he has succeeded in meeting during a long journey.
7. Man's hubb for his colleagues and fellow professionals, such as the
liking of a scholar for another scholar, or a merchant's for another merchant,
and so on.
8. The hubb (affinity) of the effect for its cause, and vice versa.
9. The hubb of common effects of a single cause for one another; such
as the love between members of a single family.
If we give some thought to this matter, we shall reach the conclusion that
since God is Absolute Existence and all other things depend on Him, whatever
other things man may love lack any independent existence of their own. In
other words, since God is the Ultimate Reality, He is in fact the ultimate
object of true love, and all other kinds of love directed towards things are
figurative and imaginary. Thus it is that one must sublimate one's love and
discover its real object; and this is not possible unless the following
conditions appear in him:
1. He should have a fervent desire of meeting God (liqa' Allah); in
other words, he should have no fear of death. His actions must be such as to
reflect his assurance that he will meet God after his death.
2. He should give priority to God's wish over and above his own wishes and
desires, since this is one of the requirements of love.
3. He should not forget God for even a moment, just as the lover is not
forgetful of his beloved for even a second.
4. He must not be happy when he gains something, or sad when he loses
something, since if all his attention is centered on God all other things
would be unimportant for him.
5. He should be kind and loving towards God's creatures, since whoever loves
God will certainly love His creatures also.
6. He should have fear of God at the same time that he loves Him, since these
two states are not contradictory.
7. He should keep his love of God a secret.
Under such conditions God would also love His servant and fulfil His promise:
Say ( O Muhammad), `If you love God, follow me; God will love you and
forgive your sins.'... (3:31)
26. Sakhat
Sakhat is being grieved at adversities and misfortunes which may befall
one to the extent of complaining about them. The opposite of the vice of
sakhat is the virtue of rida which is being satisfied and
content with whatever God wills. Sakhat is a kind of karahah,
and rida is a kind of hubb.
There are many traditions condemning sakhat and exhorting man to be
patient in face of adversities and misfortunes; since they are for trials
Divinely ordained. Basically, we must realize that life in this world is made
up of suffering, difficulty, sickness and death, and without exception all men
must undergo these things. So, we must teach ourselves to deal with these
kinds of hardships. Such a preparedness is called rida, and its highest
stage is complete contentment with Divine will. This is how the Quran
describes such people:
...God is pleased with them and they with Him. That is the great triumph.
(5:119)
And this is how it describes those who lack this quality:
...and they desire the life of the world and feel secure therein
....(10:7)
It should be noted that in books of ethics taslim (resignation) and
rida (contentment) are usually used synonymously. This is because of
their close meanings; because one who is content with whatever God wills for
him is also completely resigned to God's will in all aspects of his life.
27. Huzn
Huzn means grief and remorse for losing or failing to attain something
cherished. Huzn, like sakhat, follows from karahah.
28. Absence of Trust in God
This vice consists of reliance on intermediate means, not God, for solution of
one's problems. It is caused by insufficient faith, and originates from the
Powers of Intellect and Passion. Reliance on intermediary means is a form of
shirk (polytheism).
The opposite of this vice is tawakkul (trust) in God in all aspects of
one's life, with the belief that God is the only effective force in the
universe. This is the meaning of the famous dictum:
There is no power or might except that [it is derived] from God.
And the Quran explicitly states:
...And whosoever puts his trust in God, He will suffice him .... (65:3)
And the Prophet (S) has said:
Whosoever abandons hope in everything except God, He shall take care of his
means of life.
It should be noted that the notion of tawakkul does not contradict the
idea that man has to undertake endeavour in order to benefit from the bounties
of God. This is why Islam considers it obligatory for the individual to strive
in order to make a living for his family, defend himself, and to fight for his
rights. What is important is to consider all these intermediary means as
subject to God's authority and power, without any independent role of their
own.
29. Ingratitude (Kufran)
This is the vice of being unthankful for Divine blessings, and its opposite is
shukr (thankfulness). The virtue of shukr consists of the
following elements:
1. Recognition of blessings and their origin, which is Divine Beneficence.
2. Being delighted on account of the blessings-not for their worldly worth or
for having gained them, but for their value in bringing us closer to God.
3. Acting on this joy and delight by undertaking to satisfy the aim of the
Giver, in word and in deed.
4. Praising the Bestower of the blessings.
5. To use the bounty given to us in a way which would please Him. By
`blessings' are meant all those things which bring pleasure, benefit, and
felicity, whether in this world or the next.
The Holy Quran says:
...If you are thankful 1 will give you more; but if you are thankless, My
punishment is surely terrible. (14:7)
And in elaboration of the second part of the previous verse, the Quran says:
God has struck a similitude: A city that was secure and well content, its
provision coming to it in abundance from every place, then it was unthankful
for the blessings of God; so God let it taste the garment of hunger and
fear,for the things that they were working. (16:112)
30. Jaza ` (Restlessness)
Jaza` leads to screaming, beating one's face, tearing clothes, and
raising a clamour when faced with some misfortune or calamity. Jaza` is
one of the vices of the Power of Anger. Its opposite is sabr
(forbearance), which is one of the noblest virtues. In any case,
jaza` is one of the vices which leads to man's fall, since it is
essentially a complaint against God and rejection of His decrees.
Sabr, on the contrary, consists of preserving one's calm under all
circumstances and doing one's duty in all conditions. Sabr has a
different function in different situations; for example, sabr on the
field of battle lies in perseverance in performing one's duty; in other words,
it is a form of courage. Sabr in the state of anger is self-control and
synonymous with hilm (gentleness). Sabr in face of desires and
lusts is `iffah (chastity). Sabr with respect to luxurious and
opulent living is zuhd (abstinence). To sum up, sabr is a virtue
related to all of the four Powers.
Sabr has been much praised in Islamic traditions, and the Holy Quran
extols this virtue, its merits and its rewards in seventy different places.
For example, it says:
...Yet give glad tidings to the steadfast who, when an affliction visits
them, say: `Surely we belong to God and to Him we return;' upon those rest
blessings and mercy from their Lord, and those-they are the truly guided.
(2:155-157)
And the Prophet (S) has said:
The relationship of sabr to faith ('iman) is like that of the
head to the body; just as the body cannot live without the head, so also faith
cannot survive without sabr.
There are five kinds of sabr in relation to the Islamic Shari'ah:
wajib (obligatory), haram (forbidden), mustahabb
(desirable), makruh (reprehensible), and mubah (permitted).
An example of `obligatory sabr' is abstinence from forbidden pleasures
and desires. An example of `forbidden sabr' is patience in face of
injustice such as oppression or cruelty. `Desirable sabr' is
steadfastness in doing things which are desirable (mustahabb), while
`reprehensible sabr' is related to toleration of situations which are
reprehensible. Finally, mubah or permitted sabr is related to
permitted things.
It follows, then, that sabr is not always a worthy trait, and its
worth, or the lack of it, depends on its object. In general, the criterion by
which the various kinds of sabr are judged is the same by which all
other deeds and traits are judged, i.e. all those actions which facilitate
man's spiritual development are considered worthy and laudable, while all
other actions and traits are considered bad and harmful.
31. Fisq
Fisq as a term means disobedience to the obligatory commands of Islamic
Shari'ah or committal of acts forbidden by it; its opposite is ita'ah
(obedience) to the commands of God, the Supreme.
A major part of the Divine commands consists of specific forms of worship
which are considered either wajib or mustahabb in Islam. They
are: taharah (purity), salat (prayer), du'a'
(invocation), dhikr (remembrance of God), qira' ah (reciting
the Holy Quran), sawm (fasting), hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca),
ziyarat al-Nabi (pilgrimage to the Prophet's (S) tomb), jihad
(fighting in the way of God), ada' al-ma'ruf (discharging the
financial duties set down by Islamic Law, consisting of khums, zakat
and sadaqah [voluntary alms-giving]).
At this point al-Naraqi-may God's mercy be upon him-centers his final
discussion which is a treatment of the Divine commands just mentioned, their
rationale,. and their beneficial role in the spiritual growth and development
of man. Since this discussion is mostly concerned with fiqh, we shall
forego recounting it here for brevity's sake.
In conclusion we hope that God grants us the strength to morally improve
ourselves by putting into practice the advices set forth summarily in the
preceding four sections. It is also to be hoped that a careful study and
examination of this short discourse on Islamic ethics would motivate us to
adhere to its principles, thus bringing joy and satisfaction to the spirit of
its author. Amin.
Concluded; wal-hamdu lillah
